Transworld Research Network
37/661 (2), Fort P.O.
Plants in Traditional and Modern Medicine: Chemistry and Activity, 2010: 69-175
ISBN: 978-81-7895-432-5 Editor: Eugene Kokkalou
2. Medicinal plants used for the treatment of
diabetes and its long-term complications
Polyxeni Alexiou and Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Diabetes mellitus is a complex metabolic disorder that affects between 6 to 20% of the population in Western industrialized societies, with an estimated worldwide prevalence of 150 million people in 2000, a number that is expected to increase to 220 million people in 2010 (Zimmet et al., 2001; Fracchiolla et al., 2007). Furthermore, taking into account its present rate of increase, within few decades it will be one of the world's commonest diseases and one of the biggest public-health problems with an estimated minimum of half-a-billion cases (Diamond, 2003). The word "diabetes" (a Greek word that means "to pass through") was first used by Aretaeous of Capadocia in the 2nd century AD to describe a condition that is characterized by excess of sugar in blood and urine, hunger and thirst (MacFrlance et al., 1997) and the adjective "mellitus" (a latin-greek word that means "honey") was introduced by the English physician John Rollo so as to distinguish the conditions from other polyuric diseases, in which glycosuria does not occur (Rollo 1797). People suffering from diabetes are not able to produce or properly use insulin in the body
Correspondence/Reprint request: Dr. Polyxeni Alexiou, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. E-mail: [email protected]
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
and therefore chronic hyperglycemia occurs. In addition, the diabetic individual is prone to late onset complications (Fujisawa et al., 2004), such as retinopathy, neuropathy and vascular diseases, that are largely responsible for the morbidity and mortality observed in diabetic patients.
There are two main types of diabetes, namely type I and type II (World Health
Organization. Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes mellitus and its Complications. Part 1: Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus (Department of Noncommunicable Disease Surveillance, Geneva, 1999)). Type I diabetes, that is called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or juvenile-onset diabetes develops when the body's immune system destroys pancreatic β-cells, the only cells in the body that produce the hormone insulin that regulates blood glucose. This type of diabetes usually strikes children and adults and the need for insulin administration is determinant for survival. Type I diabetes accounts for 5% to 10% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes and the risk factors may be autoimmune, genetic, or environmental.
On the other hand, type II diabetes, also called non–insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (NIDDM) or adult-onset diabetes, accounts for about 90% to 95% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes. It usually begins as insulin resistance, a disorder in which the cells do not use insulin properly and as the need for insulin rises; the pancreas gradually loses its ability to produce it. This type of diabetes is associated with older age, obesity, family history of diabetes, history of gestational diabetes, impaired glucose metabolism, physical inactivity, and race/ethnicity. It must be noted thought that in the last decay type II diabetes in children and adolescents is being diagnosed more frequently (Fagot-Gampagna & Narayan 2001). In the case of the IDDM, insulin is of crucial importance for the survival of the patients. On the other hand, in the case of NIDDM the treatment includes medicines, diets and physical training.
Up to now, many kinds of antidiabetic medicines have been developed for the
patients and most of them are chemical or biochemical agents aiming at controlling or/and lowering blood glucose to a normal level. Despite the impressive advances in health sciences and medical care, there are many patients who are using alternative therapies alone or complementary to the prescribed medication. Traditional plant remedies or herbal formulations exist from ancient times and are still widely used, despite all the controversy concerning their efficacy and safety (Huxtable 1990; Fugh-Berman 2000), to treat hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic conditions all over the world. It must be noted that many ethno-botanical surveys on medicinal plants used by the local population have been performed in different parts of the world and there is a considerable number of plants described as antidiabetic. In addition a variety of compounds have been isolated (alkaloids, glycosides, terpenes, flovonoids, etc) but further studies need to be done so as these ‘leads' to develop into clinically useful medicines. To date, metformin (a biguanide) is the only drug approved for treatment of type II diabetes mellitus. It is a derivative of an active
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
natural product, galegine, isolated from the plant Galega officinalis L. (Witters 2001).
The data presented below are based on a diabetes literature database of
antidiabetic medicinal plants (Babu et al., 2006) (DiaMedBase: http://www. progenebio.in/DMP/Turnera.htm). Also, the presented list of antidiabetic plants is enriched by data from review papers (Bnouham et al., 2006; Li et al., 2004; Andrade-Cetto & Heinrich 2005; Pulok et al., 2006).
It must be also noted that there are few references to the Ayurveda and Siddha
systems (http://indianmedicine.nic.in/html/). Ayurveda originated in India long
back in pre-vedic period. Ayurved texts were documented about 1000 years B.C.
The term Ayurveda means ‘Science of Life'. It deals with measures for healthful
living during the life and it has developed a wide range of therapeutic measures to
combat illness. These principles of positive health and therapeutic measures relate
to physical, mental, social and spiritual welfare of human beings. Thus, Ayurveda is
considered as one of the oldest systems of health care dealing with both the
preventive and curative aspects of life in a most comprehensive way and presents a
close similarity to the WHO's concept of health propounded in the modern era.
Siddha system is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India. The term Siddha
means achievements and Siddhars were saintly persons who achieved results in
medicine. This system is largely therapeutic in nature.
Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)
The hypoglycemic action of myricetin, purified from the aerial part
of Abelmoschus moschatus, was investigated in STZ-diabetic rats (Liu et al., 2005). I.v. injection of myricetin decreased the plasma glucose concentrations in a dose-dependent manner in STZ-diabetic rats and all the obtained results suggested that myricetin has an ability to enhance glucose utilization to lower plasma glucose in diabetic rats with deficient insulin levels.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Acacia arabica (Leguminoseae)
Acacia arabica is a moderate sized, almost evergreen tree found
throughout the drier parts of India. The bark of this plant has various
traditional uses including that of an antidiabetic remedy.
A significant hypoglycemic effect of powdered seeds in normal rabbits,
administered per os (Wadood et al., 1989), was postulated that it is based on
the release of insulin from pancreatic β cells.
Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) and Abroma augusta
(Sterculiaceae)
Combination of water extract of dried powder of root and leaves of
Abroma augusta and Azadirachta indica respectively was administered per os
to alloxan diabetic rats, and this treatment caused significant lowering of
blood sugar and reduction in serum lipids. Aqueous extract also decreased the
formation of lipid peroxides and increased antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT,
glutathione peroxidase and GST) in erythrocytes. It also prevented the
decrease of body weight. Abroma augusta roots and Azadirachta indica
leaves when given together as a water extract have hypoglycemic action and
have better effect than given alone (Halim 2003).
Acer ginnala (Aceraceae), Illicium religiosum (Illiciaceae)
and Cornus macrophylla (Cornaceae)
Naturally occurring substances which can prevent and treat diabetic
complications were sought by examining ethanolic extracts, prepared from
Korean forest plants, for their inhibitory effects on rat lenses ALR2 activity
in vitro. Among the plants examined in a reported study, Acer ginnala,
Illicium religiosum and Cornus macrophylla exerted the strongest inhibitory
activity on ALR2 (Kim & Oh 1999).
Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae)
Blood glucose levels of normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits were
determined after per os administration of various doses of Achyranthes aspera powdered whole plant and certain aqueous and methanolic extracts (Muhammad et al., 1991). A significant dose-related hypoglycemic effect in normal as well as in diabetic rabbits was observed. It is possible that the plant could act by providing certain necessary trace elements (like calcium, zinc, magnesium, manganese and copper) to the β cells.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Achyrocline satureioides (Asteraceae)
A new dibenzofuran, achyrofuran, was isolated from an extract of
Achyrocline satureioides and it significantly lowered blood glucose levels in
experimental animals when it was administered per os (Camey et al., 2002).
Acosmium panamense (Fabaceae)
This species is widely used, especially in the southern lowland of
Mexico, for treating fever, malaria and in recent decades diabetes. The
hypoglycemic effects of water and butanolic extracts. prepared from the bark
of Acosmium panamense, were studied in STZ-diabetic rats after per os
administration. The studied extracts lowered the plasma glucose levels in
STZ-diabetic rats (Andrade-Cetto & Wiedenfeld 2004).
Psacalium decompositum, Psacalium peltatum and Acourtia
thurberi (Asteraceae)
The effects of Psacalium decompositum, Psacalium peltatum and
Acourtia thurberi on blood glucose levels were investigated in fasting mice
and temporally hyperglycemic rabbits (Alarcon-Aguilar et al., 1997).
The root decoction of Psacalium decompositum reduced the blood glucose
of normal mice after i.p. administration and significantly lowered the
hyperglycemic peak in rabbits with hyperglycemia. Psacalium peltatum and
Acourtia thurberi decoctions also diminished fasting glycemia in mice and
hyperglycemia in rabbits, but these effects were minor. The water decoctions
of the three roots contained alkaloids and sugars. Psacalium decompositum
and Psacalium peltatum showed the presence of maturine. However, other
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
sesquiterpenoid constituents, such as cacalol and cacalone, were only present in Psacalium decompositum. Acourtia thurberi root water decoction showed the presence of the benzoquinone perezone, and its derivative pipitzol.
Artemisia
(Asteraceae), Salvia coccinia (Lamiaceae),
Monstera deliciosa (Araceae), Abies pindrow (Pinaceae), Centaurea
iberica (Asteraceae), Euphorbia helioscopia (Euphorbiaceae), Bauhinia
variegate (Leguminosae), Bergenia himalacia (Saxifragaceae), Taraxacum
officinale (Asteraceae), Viburnum foetens (Caprifoliaceae).
In vitro testing of the extracts of medicinal plants collected from
Islamabad area and the Murree region on insulin secretagogue activity was
carried out using INS-1 cells (insulinoma cell line) (Hussain et al., 2004).
Dried ethanol extracts of all plants were tested at various concentrations for
insulin release. Promising insulin secretagogue activity was found. It should
be pointed out that in some cases, a decrease in insulin secretion was
observed. However, the overall results suggest that medicinal plants of
Islamabad area and the Murree region of Pakistan may be potential natural
resources for antidiabetic compounds.
Aegle marmelose (Rutaceae)
Alloxan induced diabetic animal model was used to evaluate the
potential antidiabetic effect of Aegle marmelose leaf extract (Ponnachat et al.,
1993). The diabetic animals were given insulin injection and another group
Aegle marmelose leaf extract orally. The results indicated that the Aegle
marmelose leaf extract has similar hypoglycemic activity to that of insulin
treatment.
According to another study (Das et al., 1996) the leaf extract of Aegle
marmelose reversed the altered parameters of STZ-diabetic rats to almost normal after per os administration. Treatment with the leaf extract showed improved functional state of pancreatic β cells. The results indicate the potential hypoglycemic effect of the leaf extract, possibly involved in processes for the regeneration of damaged pancreas.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
The functional basis of diabetes to a certain extent can be elucidated by
studying diabetes-induced changes in metabolic enzymes. MDH is an enzyme directly involved in glucose metabolism. The kinetic parameters of MDH and its purified cytosolic isozyme, S-MDH, have been studied in the liver of STZ-diabetic rats and also the potential of the leaf extract of Agle marmelose as an anti-diabetic agent was investigated (Seema et al., 1996). Insulin as well as the leaf extracts' treatment of the diabetic rats brought about a reversal of Km values at the diabetic rats to almost normal. Since MDH is an important enzyme in glucose metabolism, the variation in its quantitative and qualitative nature may contribute to the pathological status of diabetes. The fact that leaf extract of Aegle marmelose was found to be as effective as insulin in the restoration of blood glucose and body weight to normal levels, its use as potential hypoglycemic agent is suggested.
The antidiabetic effect of an aqueous extract of Aegle marmelos fruits
in diabetes was studied (Kamalakkanan et al., 2003). Blood glucose, plasma insulin, glycosylated hemoglobin, liver glycogen, and change in body weight were determined in STZ-diabetic rats. The results showed that glucose levels and glycosylated hemoglobin were increased and plasma insulin and liver glycogen were decreased in the STZ-diabetic rats, and that per os treatment with the aqueous extract of Aegle marmelos fruits reversed the effects of diabetes on these biochemical parameters to almost normal levels. Also, the depressed activities of SOD, CAT and glutathione peroxidase as well as the lowered GSH content in the heart and pancreas of diabetic rats was found to be increased after treatment with the aqueous extract of Aegle marmelos fruits.
Per os administration of Aegle marmelos fruit extract led to a significant
lowering of lipids in STZ-diabetic rats (Kamalakkannan et al., 2004). The results of this study demonstrated that an aqueous Aegle marmelos fruit extract exhibits an antihyperlipidemic effect in STZ-diabetic rats.
It is known that certain inorganic elements such as V, Zn, Cr, Cu, Fe, Na,
K, and Ni play an important role in the maintenance of normoglycemia by
activating the β cells of the pancreas. In a reported study (Nerendhirakannan
et al., 2005), the elemental composition in the leaves of Aegle marmelos
widely used in the treatment of diabetes-related metabolic disorders has been
studied using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The levels of Cu, Ni, Zn, K,
Na Fe, Cr, and V were found to be in trace amounts.
Agaricus bisporus (Agaricaceae)
Agaricus bisporus (the cultivated mushroom) that is used for the
traditional treatment of diabetes mellitus in northern Europe was studied,
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
using normal and STZ-diabetic mice, in order to evaluate its effects on
glucose homeostasis (Swanston-Flatt et al., 1989). The plant was
administered in the diet and/or as decoction or infusion in place of drinking
water, to coincide with the traditional method of preparation. It retarded the
development of hyperglycemia and reduced the hyperphagia, polydipsia,
body weight loss, and glycated haemoglobin. Mushroom also countered the
initial reduction in plasma insulin and the reduction in pancreatic insulin
concentration, and improved the hypoglycemic effect of exogenous insulin.
These studies suggest the presence of potentially useful antidiabetic agents in
these mushrooms.
Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae)
Agrimonia eupatoria (agrimony) has been documented as a traditional
treatment of diabetes. The effects of dietary administration of agrimony to
STZ-diabetic mice, on in vitro glucose uptake and glucose metabolism, and
on insulin secretion were investigated (Gray & Flatt 1998) and the obtained
results demonstrated the presence of antihyperglycemic, insulin-releasing and
insulin-like activity in Agrimony eupatoria. In addition, treatment with
agrimony, supplied in the diet, reduced the level of hyperglycemia in STZ-
diabetic mice and this was associated with reduced polydipsia (Swanston-
Flatt et al., 1990).
Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae)
Allium sativum (garlic) has been used in cooking for thousands of years
and S-allyl cysteine sulphoxide (SACS), a sulphur containing amino acid of which is the precursor of allicin, has been found to show significant antidiabetic effects in alloxan diabetic rats (Sheela & Augusti 1992).
Per os administration of it significantly decreased the concentration of
serum lipids, blood glucose and activities of serum enzymes like alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase and liver G6Pase. It also increased liver and intestinal HMGR activity and liver HK activity.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Garlic and garlic preparations are also reported as agents used for the
prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis and atherosclerosis-related diseases (Orekhov & Reddy 1997). Garlic indirectly effects atherosclerosis by reduction of hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and probably diabetes mellitus and prevents thrombus formation. In addition, in animal models, garlic causes direct antiatherogenic (preventive) and antiatherosclerotic (causing regression) effects at the level of artery wall. Garlic's direct effect on atherosclerosis may be explained by its capacity to reduce lipid content in arterial cells and to prevent intracellular lipid accumulation.
Based on another study concerning the therapeutic potential of the
ethanol extract of garlic, it was found that when it was ingested it was responsible for anti-hyperglycemic and anti-nociceptive effects in alloxan-induced diabetic mice (Kumar & Reddy 1999).
The effect of aged garlic extract administered per os on stress induced
hyperglycemia was also investigated using the immobilization stress model in
mice (Kasuga et al., 1999). From the obtained results, it was suggested that it
may prevent stress-induced hyperglycemia which is the risk of suffering from
diabetes mellitus and its progression.
Allium cepa L. (Liliaceae)
Allium cepa (onion) is a common vegetable. Antidiabetic and antioxidant
effects of S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide (SMCS) isolated from Allium cepa (onion) were studied in alloxan diabetic rats after using it for treatment for two months (Kumari & Augusti 2002). SMCS ameliorated the diabetic condition significantly and lowered the levels of malondialdehyde, hydroperoxide and conjugated dienes in tissues exhibiting antioxidant effect on lipid peroxidation in experimental diabetes. The probable mechanism of action of SMCS may be partly dependent on the stimulation of insulin secretions and partly due to its antioxidant activity.
Onion was found to increase the fasting serum high-density lipoprotein
levels, and demonstrated alleviation of hyperglycemia in STZ-diabetic rats (Campos et al., 2003). The hypoglycemic and hypolipidaemic actions of
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Allium cepa were associated with antioxidant activity, since onion decreased
SOD activities while no increased lipid hydroperoxide and lipoperoxide
concentrations were observed in diabetic rats treated with Allium cepa.
Allium cepa L. and Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae)
After per os administration of Allium cepa L. and Allium sativum L.
(onion and garlic respectively) sulfoxide amino acids (S-methylcysteine
sulfoxide and S-allylcysteine sulfoxide) to alloxan-diabetic rats, their diabetic
condition (being characterized by glucose intolerance, weight loss and
depletion of liver glycogen), was ameliorated and it was comparable to rats
treated with glibenclamide and insulin (Sheela et al., 1995).
Aloe vera (Liliaceae)
Aloe is a desert plant with a cactus like appearance and has been used
since prehistoric times for burns and wound healing. The positive influence of Aloe vera on the healing of full-thickness wounds in diabetic rats is reported. The results of this study indicated that Aloe vera treatment of wounds in diabetic rats may enhance the process of wound healing by influencing phases such as inflammation, fibroplasia, collagen synthesis and maturation, and wound contraction. These effects may be due to the reported hypoglycemic effects of the aloe gel (Chithra et al., 1998).
The dried sap of the aloe plant (aloes) is one of several traditional
remedies used for diabetes in the Arabian peninsula. Its ability to lower the blood glucose levels, when administered per os, was studied in 5 patients with type II diabetes and in Swiss albino mice made diabetic using alloxan. It was concluded that aloes contain a hypoglycemic agent which lowers the blood glucose levels (Ghannam et al., 1986).
Separate experiments on three main groups of rats, namely, non-diabetic,
type I and type II diabetic rats were carried out (Okyar et al., 2001). The plant extracts were administered per os. Aloe vera leaf pulp and gel extracts were ineffective on lowering the blood sugar level of non-diabetic rats. Aloe vera leaf pulp extract showed hypoglycemic activity on type I and II diabetic rats and, the effectiveness being enhanced for type II diabetes in comparison with glibenclamide. On the contrary, Aloe vera leaf gel extract showed hyperglycemic activity on type II diabetic rats. It may therefore be concluded that the pulps of Aloe vera leaves devoid of the gel could be useful in the treatment of type II diabetes mellitus.
The evaluation of the presence of hypoglycemic activity in the alcoholic
extract of Aloe vera gel demonstrated that Aloe vera extract maintained the
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
glucose homeostasis by controlling the carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes (Rajasekaran et al., 2004).
Diabetes mellitus impairs the memory function in experimental animals.
Since the mammalian hippocampus and cerebral cortex play a pivotal role in a
diverse set of cognitive functions, such as novelty detection and memory, the
vulnerability of cortex and hippocampus regions of the brain to oxidative damage
in STZ-diabetic mice was examined (Parihar et al., 2004) under the effect of
extracts of Aloe vera on prevention of hippocampus and cortical cell
degenerations after i.p. injection. It was concluded that impairments in the
hippocampus and cortex in STZ-diabetic mice are associated with an increased
free radical mediated oxidative damage and that the supplementation of aloe
extracts showed preventive effects in attenuating oxidative damage in both brain
regions possibly via antioxidative mechanisms.
Aloe barbadensis (Liliaceae)
The acute and chronic effects of the extract of Aloe barbadensis leaves and
its bitter principle were studied on plasma glucose levels of alloxan-diabetic
mice (Ajabnoor 1990). Aloe barbadensis leaf extract was administered per os
and the bitter principle was administered i.p. The hypoglycemic effect of a
single per os dose on serum glucose level was insignificant whereas that of the
bitter principle was very highly significant and extended over a period of 24 h.
The hypoglycemic effect of the bitter principle may be mediated through
stimulating synthesis and/or release of insulin from the β cells of Langerhans.
Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees (Acanthaceae)
Andrographis paniculata is an annual herb commonly known as Kalmegh
or ‘King of Bitters', found throughout India and cultivated in many states of India. The anti-diabetic effect of a crude ethanolic extract of Andrographis paniculata in normal and STZ-diabetic rats was investigated (Zhang & Tan 2000). After per os administration it was found that it possesses antidiabetic property and that this antidiabetic effect may be attributed, at least in part, to increased glucose metabolism. Its hypotriglyceridemic effect is also beneficial in the diabetic state.
The antihyperglycemic action of andrographolide, an active principle in the
leaves of Andrographis paniculata, was investigated in STZ-diabetic rats (Yu et al., 2003). Treatment of andrographolide decreased the plasma glucose concentrations of STZ-diabetic rats in a dose-dependent manner. Similar treatment with andrographolide also decreased the plasma glucose in normal rats and the maximum effect was more marked than that in STZ-diabetic rats.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Andrographolide at the effective dose (1.5 mg/kg) significantly attenuated the increase of plasma glucose induced by an intravenous glucose challenge test in normal rats. In the isolated soleus muscle of STZ-diabetic rats, andrographolide enhanced the uptake of radioactive glucose in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, the mRNA and protein levels of GLUT4 in soleus muscle were increased after repeated i.v. administration of andrographolide in STZ-diabetic rats. These results suggested that andrographolide can increase the glucose utilization to lower plasma glucose in diabetic rats lacking insulin.
Anemarrhena asphodeloides (Liliaceae)
The rhizome of Anemarrhena asphodeloides has been used as a
traditional Oriental medicine for diabetes (polyuria and polydipsia) and
antidiabetic activity has been observed. The antidiabetic activity of the
rhizome of Anemarrhena asphodeloides was investigated in KK-Ay mice, an
animal model of genetic type II diabetes. (Miura et al., 2001). The water
extract of the rhizome reduced blood glucose levels after per os
administration and also tended to reduce serum insulin levels in the diabetic
mice. Additionally, the treated diabetic mice had significantly reduced blood
glucose levels in an insulin tolerance test. Based on these results, the
antidiabetic mechanism of Anemarrhena asphodeloides water extract may be
due to decreased insulin resistance. In addition, its active components were
confirmed to be mangiferin and its glycoside.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Angylocalyx pynaertii (Leguminosae)
From the pod extract of Angylocalyx pynaertii 13 sugar-mimic alkaloids
were isolated and the structures of the new alkaloids were found to be very specific inhibitors of alpha-L-fucosidase with no significant inhibitory activity towards other glycosidases (Yasuda et al., 2002). 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-D-ribitol was found to be a better inhibitor of lysosomal beta-mannosidase than 2,5-imino-1,2,5-trideoxy-D-mannitol. N-Hydroxyethyl-1-deoxynojirimycin (miglitol), which is commercially available for the treatment of diabetes, retained its inhibitory potential towards rat intestinal maltase and sucrase, whereas N-hydroxyphenyl-1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-D-arabinitol and the synthetic N-hydroxyethyl derivative of 2,5-dideoxy-2,5-imino-D-mannitol had markedly lower inhibition towards all enzymes tested.
Annona squamosa L. (Annonaceae)
The claim by some tribal populations in parts of Northern India that the
young leaves of the custard apple tree, Annona squamosa, has antidiabetic
properties was investigated (Shirwaikar et al., 2004). Diabetes mellitus was
induced with STZ-nicotinamide and graded doses of the aqueous leaf extracts
were then administered in drinking water to normal and experimental diabetic
rats. The findings of the study supported the antidiabetic claims of Annona
squamosa. In addition, the leaf alcohol extract of the plant Annona squamosa
was investigated for its antidiabetic activity in the same experimental model.
The findings showed the significant antidiabetic potential of the extract in
ameliorating the diabetic conditions in diabetic rats. No significant effects
were found in the normal rats.
Apocynum venetum L. (Apocynaceae)
Luobuma tea, prepared from the leaves of Apocynum venetum, is a
popular beverage in China. In a reported study (Yokozawa & Nakagawa 2004), the activity of Luobuma leaf extract and its components against the formation of AGEs, which are largely involved in the pathogenesis of
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
diabetic vascular complications, was examined. Strong in vitro inhibitory
activity against the formation of AGEs was shown by Luobuma aqueous
extract. Following further fractionation of this extract, polyphenolic
compounds were isolated and these purified compounds also exerted
inhibitory activities and were more potent than the positive control,
aminoguanidine.
Aralia dasyphylla Miq (Araliaceae)
The structures of a triterpenoid and its glycoside were isolated from
Aralia dasyphylla. Pharmacological experiments showed that the total saponins exerted preventative effect on CCl4-induced liver injury of male
mice and hypoglycemic effect on a model of alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Yi et al., 1997). Their structures have been identified to be oleanoic acid and oleanoic acid-28-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside.
ol eanoic acid-28-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside
Phellodendron amurense Rupr (Rutaceae) and Aralia cortex
(Araiaceae)
Enhanced activities of the polyol pathway and oxidative damage have
been implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetic cataract. It was investigated whether these changes in diabetic lenses could be prevented by the water extract of Phellodendron cortex and Aralia cortex (P55A) (Lee et al., 1999). ALR2 activity was inhibited significantly by the treatment with P55A. Consequently, it caused a reduction in the high sorbitol contents observed in the lenses of diabetic rats. In addition, the greatly elevated content of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and carbonylated protein in diabetic rats were reduced by P55A treatment. These results suggested that P55A extract exerts an antioxidant effect by reducing lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation as well as having an inhibitory action against ALR2 in the lenses of diabetic rats.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Ericaceae), Hydrastis canadensis
(Ranunculaceae), Viscum album (Viscaceae), Artemisia
dracunculus (Asteraceae)
Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), golden seal (Hydrastis canadensis),
mistletoe (Viscum album), tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) and an herbal
mixture used for traditional treatment of diabetes were studied in STZ
diabetic mice (Swanston-Flatt et al., 1989). These studies suggested that
bearberry, golden seal, mistletoe and tarragon may counter some of the
symptoms of STZ diabetes without, however, affecting glycemic control.
Areca catechu L. (Palmae)
The nut contains a large quantity of tannin, gallic acid, fixed oil gum,
volatile oil, lignin and alkaloids like arecoline, arecain, guracine, etc. Arecoline was investigated and reported to have hypoglycemic activity in an animal model of diabetes upon s.c. administration (Chempakam 1993).
Artemisia herba alba (Asteraceae)
Artemisia herba alba has been widely used in Iraqi folk medicine for the
treatment of diabetes mellitus. Per os administration of an aqueous extract of the aerial parts of this plant to normoglycemic and to alloxan-diabetic rabbits produced significant hypoglycemic activity, which was consistent and time-dependent (Twaij & Al-Bahr 1988).
In another study, feeding diabetic rats and rabbits with the aqueous
extract of the aerial parts of the plant led to a significant reduction in blood glucose levels, prevented the elevation of the glycosylated haemoglobin levels and possessed a hypoliposis (presence of an abnormally small amount of fat in the tissues) effect, in addition to the protection against body weight loss of diabetic animals (Al-Shamaony et al., 1994).
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Artemisia pallens wall (Asteraceae)
It is a shrub used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus in the southern part
of India. Per os administration of the methanol extract of the aerial parts of
Artemisia pallens led to significant blood glucose lowering effect in glucose-
fed hyperglycemic and alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Subramoniam et al.,
1996). This effect of the extract was dose dependent. In fasted normal rats the
extract caused a moderate hypoglycemic effect at a significant higher dose.
Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae) and Asteracanthus
longifolia (Amaranthaceae)
Investigations were carried out to evaluate the effects of hot-water
extracts of Artocarpus heterophyllus leaves and Asteracanthus longifolia
whole plant material on the glucose tolerance of normal human subjects and
type II diabetic patients (Fernando et al., 1991). The extracts of both
Artocarpus heterophyllus and Asteracanthus longifolia significantly improved
glucose tolerance in the normal subjects and the diabetic patients.
Astragalus membranaceus (Leguminosae)
Astragalus membranaceus is a constituent of almost every herbal recipe
used in China. A study was conducted so as to examine the effects of
Astragalus polysaccharide, a component of an aqueous extract of Astragalus
membranaceus roots, on PTP1B, a negative regulator of insulin-receptor
signal transduction, and its potential role in the amelioration of insulin
resistance (Yong et al., 2005). Astragalus polysaccharide enabled insulin-
sensitizing and hypoglycemic activity at least in part by decreasing the
elevated expression and activity of PTP1B in the skeletal muscles of type II
diabetic rats.
Averrhoa bilimbi L. (Oxalidaceae)
A reported study was conducted in order to investigate the hypoglycemic
and hypolipidemic activities of an ethanolic extract of Averrhoa bilimbi leaves in STZ-diabetic rats (Pushparaj et al., 2000). The derived data showed that Averrhoa bilimbi ethanolic extract has hypoglycemic, hypotriglyceridemic, anti-lipid peroxidative and anti-atherogenic properties in STZ-diabetic rats.
The possible mechanism of the hypoglycemic action of the semi-purified
fractions of an ethanolic extract of Averrhoa bilimbi leaves in STZ-diabetic male Sprague-Dawley rats was examined (Purshparaj et al., 2001). The results
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
indicated that the extract is potent in the amelioration of hyperglycemia in
STZ-diabetic rats and is a potential source for the isolation of new per os
active agent(s) for anti-diabetic therapy.
Azardirachta indica (Meliaceae), Cassia auriculata (Fabaceae)
and Momordica charantia (Curcurbiceae)
Diamed is an herbal formulation composed of the aqueous extracts of
three medicinal plants (Azardirachta indica, Cassia auriculata and Momordica
charantia). Diamed was investigated for its possible antihyperglycemic action
in rats with alloxan-induced experimental diabetes (Ramakrishnan &
Venkateswaran 2001). The results showed that per os administration of
Diamed had antihyperglycemic action in experimental diabetes in rats.
Bauhinia forficata L. (Leguminosae)
Bauhinia forficata, commonly known as ‘paw-of-cow', is widely used in
Brazil folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Numerous experiments have shown that a decoction of Bauhinia forficata leaves reduces the changes in carbohydrate and protein metabolism that occur in rats with STZ-induced diabetes. In one investigation, the serum activities of enzymes, known to be reliable toxicity markers, were monitored in normal and STZ-diabetic rats so as to discover whether the use of Bauhinia forficata decoction had toxic effects on liver, muscle or pancreas tissue or on renal system. It was found that per os administration of an aqueous decoction of Bauhinia forficata is a potential treatment for diabetes and did not produce toxic effects measurable with the enzyme markers used in the conducted study (Pepato et al., 2004).
Experimental diabetes was used to study the acute effect of the n-butanol
fraction of Bauhinia forficata leaves on the serum glucose levels of rats (Silva et al., 2002). Per os administration of n-BuOH fraction led to a significant blood glucose-lowering effect in normal and diabetic rats. Treatment of normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats decreased glucose levels, while this fraction was devoid of hypoglycemic effect in glucose-fed hyperglycemic normal rats.
Later, in vivo and in vitro treatments were carried out to investigate the
effects of kaempferitrin, kaempferol-3,7-O-(alpha)-dirhamnoside, a major flavonoid compound of the n-butanol fraction from Bauhinia forficata leaves, on serum glucose levels, as well as its antioxidant potential (De Sousa et al., 2004). The hypoglycemic effect of kaempferitrin in STZ-diabetic rats was evident at all doses tested. The compound also showed high reactivity with the free radical 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH), inhibited
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
myeloperoxidase activity and decreased lipid peroxidation, induced by ascorbyl radical either in microsomes or in asolectin and phosphatidylcholine liposomes.
Bauhinia candicans Benth. (Leguminosae), Rubus ulmifolius
Schott. (Rosaceae), Galega officinalis L. (Leguminosae) and
Morus alba L. (Moraceae)
The hypoglycemic activity of a 20% dried leaf infusion of Bauhinia
candicans, Galega officinalis, Morus alba and Rubus ulmifolius, used for
diabetes in Chilean popular medicine, was evaluated in alloxan and STZ
induced hyperglycemic rats (Lemus et al., 1999). Activity-guided
fractionation of Rubus ulmifolius showed that petroleum ether extracts
elicited a moderate hypoglycemic effect (35%) in the STZ induced model.
Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla (Chenopodiaceae)
Beta vulgaris (Chard) is one of the plants used as hypoglycemic agent by
diabetics in Turkey. The results from the studies indicate that the use of chard may be effective in preventing or at least retarding the development of some diabetic complications (Tunali et al., 1998).
Morphological and biochemical studies demonstrated that the extract of
this plant when administered by gavage in experimental animals may reduce blood glucose levels by the regeneration of the β cells (Bolkent et al., 2000).
Betavulgarosides I, II, III, IV and oleanolic acid oligoglycosides were
isolated from the roots of Beta vulgaris. Betavulgarosides II, III and IV produced hypoglycemic effects that was demonstrated by a per os glucose tolerance test in rats after their per os administration (Yoshikawa et al., 1996).
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
betavulgaroside I
betavulgaroside I
betavulgaroside IV
betavulgaroside III
Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae)
Compelling evidence suggests that infiltrating CD4 type I helper T (Th1)
cells in the pancreatic islets play a pivotal role in the progression of diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice. Treatment with a butanol fraction of Bidens pilosa suppressed the development of diabetes, helped to maintain levels of blood glucose and insulin in non-obese diabetic mice in a dose-dependent manner and elevated the serum IgE levels regulated by Th2 cytokines (Chang et al., 2004). Moreover, the butanol fraction inhibited the differentiation of naive helper T cells (Th0) into Th1 cells but enhanced their transition into type II helper T (Th2) cells using an in vitro T cell differentiation assay. Two polyacetylenic compounds identified from the butanol fraction also prevented the onset of diabetes, in a similar way with the butanol fraction. The latter compounds showed a stronger activity for T cell differentiation than the
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
former. In summary, the butanol fraction of Biderns pilosa and its polyacetylenes can prevent diabetes possibly via suppressing the differentiation of Th0 cells into Th1 cells and promoting that of Th0 cells into Th2 cells.
3-b eta-D-glucopyranosyloxy-1-hydroxy-6(E)-tetr adecene-8,10,12-triyne
Biophytum sensitivum (Oxalidaceae)
Biophytum sensitivum is an annual herb found throughout tropical India
and used in traditional folk medicine for the treatment of hyperglycemic
patients. The effect of the leaf extract of Biophytum sensitivum, after per os
administration, was studied on glucose homeostasis in rabbits (Puri 2001).
The observations suggest that the hypoglycemic response of Biophytum
sensitivum may be mediated through stimulating the synthesis/release of
insulin from the β cells of Langerhans.
Bixa orellana (Bixaceae)
Various plants are used in Caribbean folklore for the treatment of a
variety of illnesses including diabetes mellitus. Preliminary investigations of
several crude plant extracts (Russel et al., 2005) have indicated that Bixa
orellana (annatto), among others, does actually exhibit hypoglycemic
properties.
Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)
Boerhavia diffusa is a common plant that grows widely in the tropics in
both dry and rainy seasons in India. A study was designed to investigate the antihyperlipidemic activity of an aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves in alloxan diabetic rats (Pari & Satheesh 2004). Hyperlipidemia is an associated complication of diabetes mellitus. Per os administration of Boerhavia diffusa leaf extract resulted in significant reduction in serum and tissue cholesterol, free fatty acids, phospholipids, and triglycerides. Moreover, its
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
supplementation was found to be more effective than glibenclamide in the
treatment of diabetic rats.
Brassica juncea (Brassicaceae)
Brassica juncea seeds are consumed in India as a spice (Leaf Moustard)
in various food items. Studies showed a hypoglycemic effect of this plant,
when added in the diet, in diabetic rats (Grover et al., 2002).
Bryonia alba L. (Curcubiaceae)
Bryonia alba is a native Armenian medicinal plant. The i.m.
administration of trihydroxyoctadecadienoic acid and its derivatives obtained
from the roots of the native Armenian plant Bryonia alba was found to restore
the disordered lipid metabolism of alloxan-diabetic rats (Karageuzyan et al.,
1998). These derivatives of trihydroxyoctadecadienoic acid can correct major
metabolic abnormalities typical of severe diabetes mellitus they can influence
the profile of the formation of stable prostaglandins by actions such as
downstream of prostaglandin endoperoxides.
12,13,1 6-trihyd roxy-9 Z,14E-octadecadienoic aci d
12,15,16-trihydroxy-9Z,13E-octadecadien oic acid
9,10, 13-trihydroxy-11E,15Z-octade cadienoic acid
9,12,1 3-trihyd roxy-10E,14 Z-octadecadienoi c acid
Buddleja officinalis (Loganiaceae)
The inhibitory effects of nine crude extracts were tested on unpurified rat
lenses ALR2, an enzyme involved in the complications of diabetes (Matsuda et al., 1995). Among the crude extracts, a 70% methanolic extract of Buddlejae
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Flos (flower of Buddleja officinalis) exhibited the highest inhibition. Luteolin, luteolin-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, and apigenin isolated from Buddlejae Flos showed inhibitory activity.
It was suggested that the inhibitory effect of Buddlejae Flos on ALR2 is
partially attributable to these flavonols or their glycosides.
Bumelia sartorum (Sapotaceae)
Bumelia sartorum has been mentioned in Brazilian folklore for its
reputed use in the treatment of diabetes mellitus and inflammatory disorders.
An ethanol extract of root bark elicited a hypoglycemic effect in normal and
alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Almeida et al., 1985). In addition, the extract
altered glucose tolerance in alloxan-induced diabetic rats, enhanced glucose
uptake in skeletal muscle and significantly inhibited glycogenolysis in the
liver. These results indicated that the hypoglycemic effect may be similar to
chlorpropamide and possibly due to an enhanced secretion of insulin from the
islets of Langerhans or an increased utilization of glucose by peripheral
tissues. Besides hypoglycemic activity, the ethanol extract also elicited
significant anti-inflammatory activity, but did not show any significant
effects on blood pressure, respiration or on the various isolated tissue
preparations studied.
Bassic acid, an unsaturated triterpene acid isolated from an ethanol
extract of Bumelia sartorum root bark, elicited significant hypoglycemic activity in alloxan-diabetic rats and altered the pattern of glucose tolerance in these animals when administered per os (Naik et al., 1991). In addition, bassic acid treatment increased significantly the glucose uptake process and glycogen synthesis in isolated rat diaphragm. Bassic acid treatment increased plasma insulin levels significantly in alloxan-diabetic rats. It was therefore suggested that the hypoglycemia activity of bassic acid may be mediated through enhanced secretion of insulin from the pancreatic β cells.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Caesalpinia bonducella fleming (Leguminosae)
Caesalpinia bonducella is a shrub widely distributed throughout the
coastal region of India. The tribal people of India use it for controlling the levels of blood glucose. Hypoglycemic, antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic activities of the aqueous and 50% ethanolic extracts of Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming (Leguminosae) seeds were studied in normal and STZ-diabetic rats after per os administration (Sharma et al., 1997). The results suggested that Caesalpinia bonducella seeds possess an antidiabetic principle and can be useful for the treatment of diabetes.
Its seed kernels are used in the management of diabetes mellitus, in the
folklore medicine of India as well as the Caribbean Islands. The seed kernel powder was reported to have hypoglycemic activity in experimental animals (Parameshwar et al., 2002). Four extracts (petroleum ether, ether, ethyl acetate and aqueous) of the seed kernels were prepared and tested for their hypoglycemic potentials in normal as well as in alloxan induced diabetic rats. The extracts were administered per os to the experimental animals. In normal rats, only ethyl acetate and aqueous extracts showed hypoglycemic effect, compared to that of glibenclamide. In diabetic rats, both the polar extracts (ethyl acetate and aqueous) as well as glibenclamide, showed significant hypoglycemic effect, besides, reversing the diabetes induced changes in lipid and liver glycogen levels. As far as the non-polar extracts were concerned, the ether extract showed a marginal antidiabetic activity, while the petroleum ether extract failed to show any. Since both the polar extracts were found to contain triterpenoidal glycosides, it was presumed that they might be the active principles contributing to the antidiabetic actions.
A detail study with the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the seeds of this
plant was undertaken in both type I and II diabetes mellitus in rats (Chakrabarti et al., 2003). Significant blood sugar lowering effect of
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Caesalpinia bonducella was observed in type II diabetic model. Special
emphasis was given on the mechanistic study by the gut absorption of
glucose and the levels of liver glycogen.
Caesalpinia ferrea Mart (Leguminosae)
Caesalpinia ferrea, called as "Juca", is one of the medicinal plants in
Brazil used for the treatment of diabetes. From the fruits of this plant, ellagic acid and 2'-(2,3,6-trihydroxy-4-carboxyphenyl)ellagic acid have been isolated as ALR2 inhibitors (Ueda et al., 2004). Ellagic acid is distributed in fruits and vegetables, so it is suggested that taking them might contribute to the relief of the long-term diabetic complications.
2'-(2 ,3,6-trihydroxy-4-ca rboxyphenyl)ellagic acid
Calamintha officinalis Moench (Lamiaceae)
The results of a reported study clearly demonstrated the hypoglycemic
effect of this plant extract in both normal and STZ-diabetic rats (Lemhadri et al.,
2004). In addition, no changes were observed in basal plasma insulin
concentrations after per os treatment with this plant in normal or STZ
diabetic rats, indicating that the underlying mechanism of the plant's
pharmacological action seems to be independent of insulin secretion. It was
concluded that the aqueous Calamintha officinalis extract exhibited a
significant hypoglycemic effect in normal and STZ-diabetic rats without
affecting basal plasma insulin concentrations, and supported, therefore, its
traditional use by the Moroccan population.
Camellia sinensis (Theaceae)
Camellia sinensis, commonly known as tea, is a small evergreen tree. Native
to Southeast Asia, from Sri Lanka and India to Nepal and China, tea has been planted widely in tropical and subtropical areas. The blood glucose lowering activity of Camellia sinensis was studied by many workers. It has recently been
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
reported that the major green tea polyphenolic constituent, epigallocatechin 3-gallate, mimics the cellular effects of insulin including the reductive effect on the gene expression of rate-limiting gluconeogenic enzymes in a cell culture system (Koyama et al., 2004). Per os administration of green tea that contains this polyphenolic constituent caused a reduction in the levels of mRNAs for gluconeogenic enzymes, PEPCK and G6Pase in the mouse liver. Epigallocatechin 3-gallate alone was also found to down-regulate the gene expression of these enzymes in vitro. The results of this study support the idea that green tea intake may be beneficial in the prevention of diabetes mellitus.
Carum carvi (Umbelliferae) and Capparis spinosa L.
(Capparidaceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of aqueous extracts of Carum carvi and
Capparis spinosa L. fruits were investigated in normal and STZ-diabetic rats
(Lemhadri et al., 2004). It was concluded that the aqueous extracts after per
os administration of both plants exhibit a potent anti-hyperglycemic activity
in STZ-diabetic rats without affecting basal plasma insulin concentrations.
Acacia Arabica (Minocaceae) and Caralluma edulis
(Apocynaceae)
From a reported study it was concluded that the powdered seeds of
Acacia Arabica and Caralluma edulis, when administered per os to normal
and alloxan diabetic rabbits, acted by initiating the release of insulin from
pancreatic β cells (Wadood et al., 1989).
Luffa aegyptiaca (Cucurbitaceae) and Carissa edulis
(Appocynaceae)
The effect of the per os administration of the ethanolic extracts of Luffa
aegyptiaca (seeds) and Carissa edulis (leaves) was investigated on blood
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
glucose levels both in normal and STZ-diabetic rats (El-Fiky et al., 1996).
Treatment with both extracts significantly reduced the blood glucose level in
STZ-diabetic rats during the first three hours of treatment. Luffa aegyptiaca
extract decreased blood glucose level with a potency similar to that of the
biguanide and metformin.
Cassia tora (Fabaceae)
Cassia tora fiber supplement consisting of soluble fiber extracted from
Cassia semen, a-tocopherol, ascorbic acid and maltodextrin was formulated
in a pack, and given to 15 type II diabetic subjects with certain treatment
instructions. According to the obtained results, Cassia tora supplements can
help to improve serum lipid levels in type II diabetic subjects without serious
adverse effects (Sung-Hee et al. 1988).
Cassia alata (Fabaceae)
The per os effectiveness of Cassia alata leaf extract on STZ-induced
hyperglycemia in rats has been studied and the results were compared with
glybenclamide (Palanichamy et al., 1988). While the extract has no effect on
glucose levels in normoglycemic animals, it reduced the blood sugar value in
STZ-induced hyperglycemic animals.
Cassia auriculata (Fabaceae)
In experimental diabetes, enzymes of glucose and fatty acid metabolism
are markedly altered. Persistent hyperglycemia is a major contributor to such
metabolic alterations, which lead to the pathogenesis of diabetic
complications. The reported study was designed to study the effect of Cassia
auriculata flower extract on hepatic glycolytic and gluconeogenic enzymes
and STZ-diabetic rats were given the plant's extract per os for 30 days.
(Latha & Pari 2003). In conclusion, the observations showed that the aqueous
extract possessed an antihyperglycemic effect and suggested that enhanced
gluconeogenesis during diabetes is shifted towards normal and that the
extract enhanced the utilization of glucose through increased glycolysis. The
effect of the extract was more prominent than that of glibenclamide.
Catharanthus roseus L. (Apocynaceae)
The leaf juice or water decoction of Catharanthus roseus is used as a folk
medicine for the treatment of diabetes all over the world. Therefore the leaf
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
juice of Catharanthus roseus has been evaluated for its hypoglycemic activity in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits when administered i.v. (Nammi et al., 2003; Satyanarayana et al., 2003). The results indicated a prolonged action in reduction of blood glucose and the mode of action of the active compound(s) of Catharanthus roseus is probably mediated through enhance secretion of insulin from the β cells of Langerhans or through an extrapancreatic mechanism. The reported study clearly indicated a significant antidiabetic activity with the leaf juice of Catharanthus roseus and supported the traditional usage of the fresh leaves by Ayurvedic physicians for the control of diabetes.
Hypoglycemic activity was detected in dichloromethane:methanol extract
(1:1) of leaves and twigs of Catharanthus roseus using STZ-diabetic rat
model when administered per os (Singh et al., 2001). The results indicated an
increased rate of glucose metabolism in treated rats. Increased levels of lipid
peroxidation measured as 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances indicative
of oxidative stress in STZ-diabetic rats were also normalized by treatment
with the extract.
Cecropia obtusifolia Bertol. (Cecropiaceae)
Cecropia obtusifolia has been widely used in Mexican traditional
medicine for the control of type II diabetes. The hypoglycemic effects of a
single oral dose of water and butanolic extracts prepared from leaves of
Cecropia obtusifolia were examined in STZ-diabetic rats (Andrade-Cetto &
Wiedenfeld 2001). A hypoglycemic effect to the tested extracts was found.
The flavones, isoorientin and 3-caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid), were
isolated as the important constituents of the plant and were identified as the
main constituents in both extracts, too.
chlo rogenic acid
Based on the European type II diabetes criteria, only patients with poor
response to the conventional treatment were selected for the reported study (Herrera-Arellonoa et al., 2004). All patients maintained their medical
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
treatment and also received a prepared infusion of the dry leaves of the plant
for 21 days treatment. The obtained results showed that the infusion prepared
with the leaves of Cecropia obtusifolia produced beneficial effects on
carbohydrate and lipid metabolisms when it was administered as an adjunct
on patients with type II diabetes with poor response to conventional medical
treatment.
Cecropia obtusifolia and Cetropia peltata.(Cecropiaceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of methanol leaf extracts from Cecropia obtusifolia
and Cecropia peltata was evaluated in healthy mice after per os administration
(Nicasio et al., 2005). The results suggested that Cetropia peltata is a better
hypoglycemic agent than Cetropia obtusifolia, and it could be considered for
developing a phytomedicinal product to carry out clinical trials.
Chamaemelum nobile (Compositae)
Per os administration of the aqueous extract of Chamaemelum nobile
exhibited a significant hypoglycemic effect in normal and STZ-diabetic rats
without affecting plasma insulin concentrations and support, therefore, its
traditional use by the Moroccan population (Lemhadri et al., 2005).
Cinnamomum cassia, Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Lauraceae)
Rats were treated per os with Cinnamomum cassia bark or extracts from
Cinnamomum cassia and zeylanicum in order blood glucose and plasma
insulin levels to be evaluated (Verspohl et al., 2005). The cassia extract was
superior to the zeylanicum extract. The cassia extract was slightly more
efficacious than the equivalent amount of Cassia bark. A decrease in blood
glucose levels was observed in a glucose tolerance test, whereas it was not
observed in rats that were not challenged by a glucose load. The elevation in
plasma insulin was direct since a stimulatory in vitro effect of insulin release
from INS-1 cells (an insulin secreting cell line) was observed. Thus the cassia
extract could have a direct antidiabetic potential.
Cinnamomun zeylanicum (Lauraceae) and Olea europaea
(Oleaceae)
The effects of cinnamon bark and olive leaf extracts have been
investigated on STZ-induced tissue injury, as well as some biochemical and
haematological changes in rats (Onderoglu et al., 1999). The effects on
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
glycemia were also evaluated. The data indicated that long-term use of olive
leaf and cinnamon bark may provide beneficial effects against diabetic
conditions. Determination of the underlying mechanism(s) of these beneficial
effects, toxicity to other systems and clinical assessments of related plant
materials are major topics requiring further studies.
Cissus sicyoides (Vitaceae)
Leaf decoctions of Cissus sicyoides (princess vine) are used widely as a
popular remedy for diabetes mellitus in Brazil, where its common name is "vegetal insulin, cipo-puca, anil-trepador, cortina, and insulina". Therefore it was determined whether it has anti-diabetic effects to normal and STZ-diabetic rats, and the effects of this treatment were investigated on the physiological and metabolic parameters that are altered in diabetic animals (Pepato et al., 2003). The decoction treatment significantly reduced the intake of both food and fluids and the volume of urine excreted, as well as the levels of blood glucose, urinary glucose and urinary urea, in comparison with controls. Lipid metabolism was not affected by the treatment; nor was the levels of hepatic glycogen in diabetic animals, which indicated that the mechanism implicated in the improvement in carbohydrate metabolism, observed in animals treated with the decoction, could not involve inhibition of glycogenolysis and/or stimulation of glycogenesis. The fact that normal animals treated with Cissus sicyoides exhibited no changes in any of the measured parameters suggested that its mode of action in diabetic animals does not resemble those of sulphonylurea or insulin. It may, however, act in a similar way to biguanide, via inhibition of gluconeogenesis.
In another study, the hypoglycemic and anti-lipemic effects of the per os
administered aqueous extract prepared from fresh leaves of the plant was
studied. Additionally, hepatic enzyme levels were also determined (Viana et al.,
2004). The results justified the popular use of Cissus sicyoides, pointing out
to the potential benefit of the plant aqueous extract in alternative medicine, in
the treatment of type II diabetes mellitus.
Citrullus colocynthis (Cucurbitaceae)
The effects of the aqueous, glycosidic, alkaloidal and saponin extracts of
the rind of Citrullus colocynthis on the plasma glucose levels were investigated in normal rabbits, while the effects of saponin extracts on the fasting plasma glucose levels were studied in alloxan induced diabetic rabbits (Abdel-Hassan et al., 2000). The results suggested that per os administration of the aqueous extract of the rind of Citrullus colocynthis possessed a
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
hypoglycemic effect and its hypoglycemic action could be attributed mainly
to the presence of saponin, in addition to the presence of glycosidic
components.
Loranthus begwensis (Loranthaceae), Citrus limon (Rutaceae),
Vernonia amygdalina (Compositae)
The effect of an aqueous extract of African mistletoe (Loranthus
begwensis) from two host plants (Citrus limon or Vernonia amygdalina)
was studied in male Wistar rats treated per os (Obatomi et al., 1998).
Mistletoe extract, irrespective of the host plant, appears to lower the blood
sugar levels offering the potential for clinical use of ingredients of its
extracts.
Clausena anisata Hook (Rutaceae)
A study was designed to examine the hypoglycemic effect of Clausena
anisata root methanolic extract in normal (normoglycemic) and in STZ-
diabetic rats (Ojewole 2002). While it is possible that the hypoglycemic
effect of the plant extract may be due, at least in part, to its terpenoid and
coumarin contents, the mechanism of its hypoglycemic action remaines
largely speculative, and is unlikely to be due to the stimulation of pancreatic
β cells and subsequent secretion of insulin. Although Clausena anisata root
methanolic extract was less potent than insulin as an antidiabetic agent, the
results of this experimental animal study indicated that the herb possessed
hypoglycemic activity; and thus lend credence to the suggested folkloric use
of Clausena anisata root in the management and/or control of type II diabetes
mellitus in some communities of South Africa.
Cleome droserifolia (Capparidaceae)
The mechanism of the hypoglycemic effect of the plant Cleome
droserifolia was studied in a group of albino rats rendered glucose intolerant by tetracycline induced fatty liver, and compared with normal control rats (Nicola et al., 1996). This plant might prove to have a promising therapeutic value in the treatment of diabetes mellitus because not only possessed a postprandial hypoglycemic effect but also suppressed the hepatic glucose release in the fasting state in a comparable way to this of insulin. The plant also possessed a hypocholesterolemic effect, most pronounced on the LDL cholesterol.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Cnidium officinale Makino (Apiaceae) and Tabanus fulvus
Meigan (Tabanidae)
This study described a potent activity of Cnidium officinale Makino (Cnidii
rhizome) and Tabanus fulvus Meigan (Tabanus) as an inhibitor of high glucose-
induced proliferation of glomerular mesangial cells (GMCs) (Jeong et al., 2005).
The results indicated that Cnidii rhizome and Tabanus inhibited the high glucose-
induced proliferation of GMCs partially through TGF-beta1 production,
suggesting that these natural products may be promising agents for treating the
development and progression of diabetic glomerulopathy.
Coccinia indica (Cucurbitaceae)
Administration of Coccinia indica leaf extract, an indigenous plant used in
Ayurvedic medicine in India, to normal and STZ-diabetic animals exhibited significant hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effect and reversed the associated with diabetes biochemical alterations (Venkateswaran & Pari 2002). The results indicated that the per os administration of Coccinia indica leaf extract to diabetic animals normalized blood glucose and caused marked improvement of altered carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes during diabetes.
The antioxidant effects of an ethanolic extract of Coccinia indica leaves
was studied in STZ-diabetic rats (Venkateswaran & Pari 2003). Per os
administration of Coccinia indica leaf extract resulted in a significant
reduction in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and hydroperoxides and a
significant increase in reduced GSH, SOD, CAT, glutathione peroxidase and
glutathione-S-transferase in liver and kidney of STZ-diabetic rats, which
clearly showed the extract's antioxidant property.
Cogniauxia podoleana Baillon (Cucurbitaceae)
Cogniauxia podoleana leaves are used in Congolese traditional medicine for
the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Based on an increasing number of reports on blood glucose level reduction associated with some saponins and flavonoids isolated from medicinal plants, the hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effects of flavonoid and saponin fractions of the plant administered per os were investigated on normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Diatewa et al., 2004). The obtained data confirm the antidiabetic activity of the leaves of Cogniauxia podoleana for diabetes mellitus treatment. However, it was important to note that the antihyperglycemic action could not be attributed to the presence of flavonoids because contamination was detected (amino acids, carbohydrates and other compounds) in the diethyl ether fraction containing flavonoids.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Commelina communis (Commeliaceae)
A methanolic extract of Commelina communis showed potent inhibitory
activity against alpha-glucosidase (Kim et al., 1999). One pyrrolidine alkaloid, 2,5-dihydroxymethyl-3,4-dihydroxypyrrolidine and four piperidine alkaloids, 1-deoxymannojirimycin, 1-deoxynojirimycin, alpha-homonojirimycin and 7-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl alpha-homonojirimycin were isolated. These compounds have been identified for the first time from Commelina communis, supporting the pharmacological basis of this plant that has been used as a traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of diabetes.
1-deoxymannojirimycin
1-deoxynojir imycin
Cornus officinalis Sieb (Cornaceae)
The pulps of Cornus officinalis are a traditional tonic with medicinal
positive action on the liver and kidney. According to a reported study fructus had potent anti-diabetic activity towards STZ-diabetic rats when given per os (Yamahara et al., 1981). Ursolic acid and oleanolic acid, found in the extract, were proposed as the main chemical entities responsible for the activity.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
It was also demonstrated, in another study. that an alcoholic extract of
Cornus officinalis could increase GLUT4 mRNA and its protein expression in
diabetic rats through promoting proliferation of β cells and increasing
postprandial secretion of insulin, and therefore accelerating glucose transport
(Qian et al., 2001).
Coscinium fenestratum Colebr (Menispermaceae)
The antidiabetic potential of the alcoholic stem extract of Coscinium
fenestratum, a medicinal plant widely used in the traditional Ayurveda and
Siddha systems of medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus was
evaluated in the STZ-diabetic model (Shirwaikar et al., 2005). Significant
results were observed in the measured parameters, thereby justifying the use
of the plant as a pharmacotherapeutic remedy.
Coscinium fenestratum (Menispermaceae)
Alcoholic extracts of the stems of Coscinium fenestratum, a medicinal
plant indigenous in India and Sri Lanka used in ayurveda and siddha
medicine for treating diabetes, was studied for its carbohydrate metabolism
effect and antioxidant status in STZ-diabetic rats (Punitha et al., 2005). Per os
administration of Coscinium fenestratum stem alchoholic extracts in
gradually increased doses caused a significant increase in antioxidant
enzymes such as CAT, SOD, glutathione synthetase, peroxidase, and
glutathione peroxidase. It also increased the levels of nonenzymatic
antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic acid, ceruloplasmin and tocopherol.
Effects of the alcoholic extracts on glycolytic enzymes such as glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase and HK showed a
significant increase in their levels, whereas a significant decrease was
observed in the levels of gluconeogenic enzymes, G6Pase and alanine
aminotransferase in treated diabetic rats. Serum creatinine and urea levels
were also significantly declined. This investigation demonstrated promising
antidiabetic activity of Coscinium fenestratum.
Costus speciosus (Costaceae), Nephrolepsis tuberosa
(Nephrolepidaceae) and Stephania hernandifolia
(Menispennaceae)
The rhizome of Costus speciosus, the tuber of Nephrolepsis tuberosa, and
the bulb of Stephania hernandifolia, used by the local people and traditional healers in the Eastern Himalayan belt, were studied for their effects on serum
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
glucose levels in nondiabetic and diabetic rat models at different prandial states
(Mosihuzzaman et al., 1994). The results indicated that these three plants have
interesting possibilities as a source of per os hypoglycemic agents.
Croton cajucara (Euphorbiaceae)
Trans-Dehydrocrotonin (t-DCTN), a 19-nor-clerodane diterpene isolated
from the bark of Croton cajucara demonstrated a significant hypoglycemic activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats, but not in normal rats (Farias et al., 1997). The above mentioned compound also effectively lowered the blood sugar levels in glucose fed normal rats. The hypoglycemic effect of t-DCTN was almost comparable to that produced by glibenclamide, a clinically used drug. The results indicated the antihyperglycemic potential of t-DCTN.
trans-hydr ocortin
Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Asclepiadaceae)
Cryptolepine, an indoloquinolone alkaloid isolated from Cryptolepis
sanguinolenta, was found to significantly lower glucose when given per os to
a mouse model of diabetes (Luo et al., 1998). The antihyperglycemic effect
of cryptolepine leaded to a significant decline in plasma insulin
concentration, associated with evidence of an enhancement in insulin-
mediated glucose disposal. Finally, cryptolepine increased glucose uptake by
3T3-L1 cells.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Cucurbita ficifolia (Curcurbitaceae)
In Mexico, this plant is consumed widely and several dishes and candies
are prepared with its seeds or fruit and its consumption is related to the
treatment of diabetes (the healers recommend the ingestion of the fruit
macerated in water). Acute hypoglycemic effects of freeze-dried juice of
Cucurbita ficifolia fruits were studied in healthy and alloxan-diabetic mice
and when the juice was administered by i.p. route it showed an acute
hypoglycemic effect in alloxan-diabetic mice (Alarcon-Aguilar et al., 2002).
In addition, daily per os administration of this preparation showed a highly
significant normalization of the glycemia.
Cuminum nigrum (Apiaceae)
The seeds of Cuminum nigrum were screened phytochemically and were
found to contain 8% flavonoids and 0.01% alkaloids. When studied for their
effect on blood glucose levels in normoglycemic and alloxan diabetic rabbits
after per os administration, the obtained data indicated that the total flavonoid
contents of Cumimum nigrum seeds exhibited considerable hypoglycemic
activity and may therefore be responsible for the reported antidiabetic
activity of the seeds (Ahmad et al., 2000). Furthermore, it was
conceivable that the Cuminum nigrum flavonoids possessed insulin-inducing
properties.
Dendrobium candidum (Orchidaceae)
According to reported data, Dendrobium candidum do not decrease the
serum glucose concentrations and insulin levels in normal mice (Wu et al., 2004). However, it could increase serum insulin levels and decrease serum glucagons concentrations in STZ-diabetic rats. The results of immunohistochemical stain demonstrated that the number of islet β cells was increased and that of islet α cells was decreased in STZ-diabetic rats. It could also decrease the serum glucose concentrations and increase liver glucogen contents in adrenaline-induced hyperglycemic mice. Dendrobium candidum has obvious anti-hyperglycemic effects in adrenaline-induced hyperglycemic mice and STZ-diabetic rats. Its mechanism of action probably involves the stimulation of the secretion of insulin from β cells and the inhibition of the secretion of glucagons from α cells and it can probably decrease the decomposition of liver glucogen and increase the synthesis of liver glucogen.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Dioscorea dumetorum (Dioscoreaceae)
Whereas the alkaloid-containing fraction was hypoglycemic in fasting
normal mice, the whole extract and the fractions containing steroidal derivatives showed significant hypoglycemic activities in fasting normal mice or rabbits and in fasting alloxan-diabetic rabbits (Undie & Akubue 1986). The hypoglycemic action of the glycosidic portion, in particular, was prompt and potent in normal as well as in severely alloxan-diabetic rabbits, suggesting thereby, the possibility of obtaining a compound that could act in conditions of even severe insulin lack. Dioscoretine, isolated from the methanol extract of Dioscorea dumetorum tubers, when administered i.p. to normal and alloxan diabetic rabbits produced significant hypoglycemic effects and the hypoglycemic effects were compared to those of tolbutamide (Iwu et al., 1990).
Eclipta alba (Asteraceae)
Eclipta alba, an indigenous medicinal plant, has a folk (Siddha and
Ayurvedha) reputation in rural southern India as a hypoglycemic agent. The
reported study on alloxan diabetic rats clearly showed that the per os
administration of Eclipta alba possessed potent antihyperglycemic activity
(Ananthi et al., 2003).
Terminalia chebula (Compretaceae), Terminalia belerica
(Compretaceae) and Emblica officinalis (Euphorbiaceae)
Methanolic extracts of Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica, Emblica
officinalis and their combination named ‘Triphala' (equal proportion of the
above three plant extracts) are being used extensively in Indian system of
medicine for atherosclerosis, cancer, diabetes and liver cirrhosis. They were
found to inhibit lipid peroxide formation and to scavenge hydroxyl and
superoxide radicals in vitro (Sabu & Kuttan 2002).
Enicostemma littorale Blume (Gentianaceae)
Pills prepared from Enicostemma littorale were administered to 84
patients with type II diabetes for three months (Umesh et al., 2004).
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Estimation of various biochemical parameters showed that Enicostemma littorale reduced blood glucose as well as serum insulin levels and prevented the progression of the long-term complications in diabetic patients. Significant improvement in kidney function, lipid profile and blood pressure was observed suggesting that Enicostemma littorale is an effective antidiabetic herbal.
The whole plant aqueous extract was tested for its hypoglycemic activity
on normoglycemic, hyperglycemic and alloxan induced diabetic rats after
administration via gastric intubation (Vijayvargia et al., 2000). In the case of
diabetic rats, the fall of blood sugar after 30 days treatment with the aqueous
extract was found to be significant. The decrease in the plasma glucose level
was accompanied with a decrease in the level of glycosylated haemoglobin
and of the G6Pase activity in liver.
Marrubium vulgare (Lamiaceae), Rubus imperialis (Rosaceae)
and Wedelia paludosa (Acanthaceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of four Brazilian medicinal plants (Marrubium
vulgare, Rheedia gardneriana, Rubus imperialis and Wedelia paludosa) was
studied on alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Novaes et al., 2001). The aqueous
extract of these plants was intragastrically administered to diabetic rats. The
results showed that all plants studied significantly lowered the blood glucose
levels. These results suggested that these four medicinal plants could be an
adjunct agent in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.
Equisetum myriochaetum (Equisetaceae)
Popularly known as "cola de caballo", it is traditionally used for the
treatment of type II diabetes mellitus, especially in the southern Mexico. A decoction of the aerial parts of the plant is prepared and consumed as a herbal tea ("agua de uso").
The hypoglycemic effect of the aqueous as well as the butanolic extracts
prepared from aerial parts of Equisetum myriochaetum was examined as a single per os dose in STZ- diabetic rats (Andrade-Cetto et al., 2000).
The hypoglycemic effect of the aqueous extract from aerial parts of
Equisetum myriochaetum was analyzed in 11 recently diagnosed type II diabetic patients (Revilla et al., 2002). The results demonstrated that the aqueous extract of the aerial parts of Equisetum myriochaetum showed a hypoglycemic effect in type II diabetic patients starting 90 min after its per os administration.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Eruca sativa (Cruciferae)
Clinical research has confirmed the efficacy of several plant extracts in
the modulation of oxidative stress associated with diabetes mellitus. Oil of
Eruca sativa seeds was tested for prevention and treatment of diabetes
mellitus induced experimentally by alloxan injection (El-Missiry & El-Gindy
2000). It was suggested that Eruca sativa seeds oil could be used as
antidiabetic supplement in cases of diabetes mellitus. This may be related to
its antioxidative properties and to the consequent increase in hepatic GSH.
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and Eucalyptus macrocarpa
(Myrtaceae)
Eucalyptus globulus (Tasmanian Bleu Gum) is used as a traditional treatment
for diabetes. In this study (Gray & Flatt 1998), incorporation of eucalyptus in the diet reduced the hyperglycemia and associated weight loss of STZ-diabetic mice. These data indicated that Eucalyptus globulus represents an effective antihyperglycemic dietary adjunct for the treatment of diabetes and a potential source for discovery of new per os active agent(s) for future therapy of diabetes mellitus.
In a related study, four phloroglucinol derivatives, macrocarpals A, B, D,
and G have been isolated from Eucalyptus macrocarpa and their inhibitory activity against porcine lenses ALR2 was reported (Murata et al., 1992). Some phloroglucinol derivatives were also obtained by synthesis and the relationship between structure and activity has also been reported.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Eugenia jambolana Lam. (Myrtaceae)
In India, the decoction of kernels of Eugenia jambolana is used as a
household remedy for diabetes. The hypoglycemic activity of different parts
of Eugenia jambolana (Indian black berry) seeds such as whole seed, kernel,
and seed coat was studied on STZ-diabetic rats after per os administration
(Rave et al., 2004). Whole seed showed a moderate hypoglycemic effect, and
seed coat did not show any hypoglycemic effect.
Euphrasia officinale (Scrophulariaceae)
The effects of the aqueous extract of the leaf of Euphrasia officinale,
administered per os, on blood glucose levels in normal and alloxan-diabetic
rats were investigated (Porchezhian et al. 2000). The treatment of alloxan-
induced diabetic rats reduced the increased glucose levels, while the extract
was devoid of hypoglycemic effect in normal rats.
Ferula persica (Apiaceae), Paronychia argentea
(Caryophyllaceae) and Pistacia atlantica (Anarcadiaceae)
Ferula persica, Paronychia argentea and Pistacia atlantica are three of the
plants widely recommended by the herbalists and used for their
hypoglycemic activity in Jordan. Aqueous extracts of these plants were tested
in vitro for their alpha amylase inhibitory activity and in vivo for their
hypoglycemic activity in normoglycemic and STZ-diabetic rats (Hamdan &
Afifi 2004). Although the three plants were advocated for their hypoglycemic
effects in Jordanian traditional herbal medicine; none of them showed
significant hypoglycemic activity compared to the untreated animals.
Paronychia argentea and Pistacia atlantica showed significant alpha amylase
inhibitory activity while Ferula persica did not demonstrate any alpha
amylase inhibitory activity. The main conclusion of this work was the
concern over the unjustified claims of the uses of some herbal medicine in
Jordan and possibly in other countries.
Ficus bengalensis L. (Moraceae)
A glycoside of leucopelargonidin, leucodelphinidin, isolated from the
bark of Ficus bengalensis demonstrated significant hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and serum insulin raising effects in moderately diabetic rats with close similarities to the effects of the minimal dose of glibenclamide (Cherian & Augusti 1993). The main difference observed in their effects was
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
that the former significantly enhanced the fecal excretion of sterols and bile acids while the later had no such action.
leucopelarg onidin
leucodelphinidin: 3-O-a lpha-ramnoside
Ficus carica (Moraceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of an aqueous extract of Ficus carica leaves was
studied in STZ-diabetic rats (Perez et al., 1998). The extract induced a significant hypoglycemic effect after either per os or i.p. administration. Body weight loss was prevented in treated diabetic rats and the survival index was significantly affected by plasma insulin levels. Results showed that Ficus carica aqueous extract had a clear hypoglycemic activity in treated versus non-treated diabetic rats.
The effect of a decoction of leaves of Ficus carica as a supplement to
breakfast, was studied in type I diabetes mellitus patients (Serraclara et al.,
1998). It was concluded that the addition of Ficus carica to diet could help to
control postprandial glycemia.
Ficus racemosa (Moraceae)
The glucose-lowering efficacy of a methanol extract of the stem bark of
Ficus racemosa was evaluated both in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats
after per os administration (Bhaskare Rao et al., 2002). The methanol extract at
the doses examined exhibited significant hypoglycemic activity in both
experimental animal models when compared with the control group. The activity
was also comparable to that of the effect produced by a standard antidiabetic
agent, glibenclamide. The present investigation established pharmacological
evidence to support the folklore claim that it is an antidiabetic agent.
Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae) and Silybum marianum
(Asteraceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of the aqueous extracts of Fraxinus excelsior
seed and Silybum marianum aerial part was investigated in normal and
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
STZ-diabetic rats after per os administration (Maghrani et al., 2004). The
aqueous extracts of both plants exhibited potent hypoglycemic and anti-
hyperglycemic activities in normal and STZ rats, respectively, without
affecting basal plasma insulin concentrations.
Galega officinalis L. (Leguminosae)
Galega officinalis (French lilac) was used in folklore medicine to treat
symptoms now ascribed to type II diabetes. Galega officinalis was found to be rich in guanidine, a substance with blood glucose-lowering activity that formed the chemical basis of metformin (Vuksan et al., 1990). This insulin sensitizing drug was introduced in 1957 by Jean Sterne (1909–1997), a physician and clinical pharmacologist at the Hôpital de la Pitie in Paris. Sterne selected dimethylbiguanide (metformin) for clinical development and proposed the name "Glucophage" ("glucose eater"). His results were published in 1957 (Sterne 1957) and the rest is history as nowadays metformin is the only example of an approved antidiabetic drug that was developed from a herbal source with a long history of use and reputed to be the most widely prescribed agent in the treatment of diabetes.
It must be noted that while endless pharmacological studies (Baley and
Day 2004) have been conducted so as to monitor the safety profile of
metformin, its natural ancestor, Galega officinalis is a Class A Federal
Noxious Weed in 35 states of America, and appears on the database of
poisonous plants (USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service; Poisonous
Plant Database. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. U.S. Food
& Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition. Office
of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages). At this point Paracelsus quote:
‘The right dose differentiates a poison from a useful medicine' is the most
appropriate conclusion or comment for the above mentioned irony.
Gentiana olivieri Griseb. (Gentianaceae)
Hypoglycemic effect of Gentiana olivieri flowering herbs on per os
administration were studied using in vivo models in normal and STZ-diabetic rats (Ekrem et al., 2005). Through in vivo bioassay-guided fractionation the
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
plant processes isoorientin, a known C-glycosylflavone that was isolated from the ethyl acetate fraction as the main active ingredient. Isoorientin exhibited significant hypoglycemic and antihyperlipidemic effects.
Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae)
Gingo biloba is one of the oldest living tree species, dating back more
than 200 million years and the extracts from dried leaves of younger trees are
used in complementary therapies for a variety of diseases including diabetes.
A glucose tolerance test was undertaken before and after ingestion of Ginkgo
biloba extract for three months in 20 individuals (Kudolo 2000). It seems that
Ginkgo biloba may increase insulin release.
Rubus fructicosis L. (Rosaceae) and Globularia alypum L.
(Globulareaceae)
The present study investigated the effect of per os administration of the
aqueous extract of Rubus fructicosis and Globularia alypum leaves on blood
glucose levels in normal and STZ-diabetic rats (Maghrani & Eddouks 2002).
The findings indicated that the extracts from both plants represented an
effective blood glucose lowering and a potential source for discovery of new
per os active component(s) for a therapeutical use.
Glycyrrhizae radix (Fabaceae)
Traditionally in Japan, some kampo medicines (traditional oriental herbal
prescriptions) have long been used for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. Some ALR2 inhibitors are included among these herbal prescriptions. Among these, GU-17 from Glycyrrhizae radix, identified as isoliquiritigenin, had the most potent ALR2 inhibiting activity in vitro (Aida et al., 1990). The results suggested that isoliquiritigenin may be effective in preventing diabetic complications.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
isoli quiritigenin
Gongronema latifolium (Asclepiadaceae)
Gongronema latifolium is a rainforest plant, which has been traditionally
used in the South Eastern part of Nigeria for the management of diabetes. The results of a reported study suggested that the extracts from Gongronema latifolium leaves could exert their antidiabetic activities through their antioxidant properties (Ugochukwu & Bababy 2002).
The aqueous and ethanolic extracts were tested in order to evaluate their
effect on renal oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation in non-diabetic and STZ-diabetic rats after per os administration (Ugochukwu & Makini 2003). The ethanolic extract appeared to be more effective in reducing oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and increasing the GSH/GSSG ratio, thus confirming the ethnopharmacological use of Gongronema latifolium in ameliorating the oxidative stress found in diabetics and indicating promise of possible use in lessening morbidity in affected individuals. The
antihyperglycemic
aqueous and ethanolic extracts from
Gongronema latifolium leaves was also investigated on glucose and glycogen
metabolism in liver of non-diabetic and STZ-diabetic rats (Ugochukwu &
Bababy 2003). The data showed that the ethanolic extract from the plant's
leaves had antihyperglycemic potency, which was suggested to be mediated
through the activation of HK, PFK, G6PD and inhibition of GK in the liver.
Gymnema sylvestre (Asclepiaceae), Eugenia jambolana
(Myrtaceae), Momordica charantia (Curcurbiceae),
Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae), Cassia auriculata (Fabaceae),
Aegle marmelose, Withania somnifera (Solanaceae) and
Curcuma longa (Zingeberaceae)
Dianex, a polyherbal formulation consisting of the aqueous extracts of
Gymnema sylvestre, Eugenia jambolana, Momordica charantia Azadirachta indica, Cassia auriculata, Aegle marmelose, Withania somnifera and Curcuma longa was screened for hypoglycemic activity in normal and STZ-diabetic mice (Mutalik et al., 2005). Dianex was administered per os and produced significant hypoglycemic activity in both normal and diabetic mice in acute and long-term studies. The body weight of diabetic mice
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
was significantly increased with all tested doses of Dianex. The elevated
triglycerides, cholesterol, urea and creatinine levels in diabetic mice
were decreased. Hence, Dianex may be useful in the treatment of diabetes
mellitus.
Gymnema sylvestre (Asclepiadaceae)
Gymnema sylvestre is a woody plant found in tropical forests of India
and Africa and for more than 2000 years people chewed its leaves to treat "madhu meha" ("honey urine"). Used in Ayurvedic medicine, it is thought to destroy a person's ability to discriminate sweet taste and therefore is often called "gurmar" or "sugar destroyer" (Shane-McWhorter 2001). Two water soluble extracts obtained from the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre, were tested in STZ-diabetic rats after per os administration for their effects on blood glucose homeostasis and pancreatic endocrine tissue (Shanmugasundaram et al., 1990). This herbal therapy appears to bring about blood glucose homeostasis through increased serum insulin levels provided by repair/regeneration of the endocrine pancreas.
Also, the effectiveness of the water extract from the leaves of Gymnema
sylvestre, in controlling hyperglycemia was investigated in 22 type II diabetic patients as conventional per os anti-hyperglycemic agents (Baskaran et al., 1990). The obtained data suggested that the β cells may be regenerated/repaired in type II diabetic patients on the extract's supplementation. This was supported by the raised insulin levels in the serum of patients after the supplementation. Furthermore,
antihyperglycemic
action of a crude saponin fraction
and five triterpene glycosides (gymnemic acids I-IV and gymnemasaponin V) derived from the methanol extract of leaves of Gymnema sylvestre was investigated in STZ-diabetic mice (Sugihara et al., 2000). The results indicated that insulin-releasing action of gymnemic acid IV, administered i.p., may contribute to the antihyperglycemic effect by the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre. Gymnemic acid IV may be an anti-obese and antihyperglycemic prodrug.
From the glycosidic fraction of the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre, six
triterpene glycosides, gymnemosides a, b, c, d, e, and f, were isolated together with other known triterpene glycosides (gymnemic acids). The inhibitory activity of each triterpene glycoside on the glucose uptake in rat small intestine fragments was examined, in order to determine its impact on the increase of serum glucose level in glucose-loaded rats (Yoshikawa et al., 1997).
It was found that Gymnemic acids II and III showed potent inhibitory
activity on glucose uptake. Gymnemoside b and gymnemic acids III, V, and
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
VII were found to exhibit a little inhibitory activity against glucose uptake, and the principal constituents, gymnemic acid I and gymnemasaponin V, lacked this activity. It is noteworthy that, although Gymnema saponin constituents such as Gymnemic acids II and III show no effect on serum glucose levels in oral-loaded rats, they exhibit potent inhibitory activity on the glucose uptake and further studies need to be contacted.
gymnemic acid I I
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Gymnema montanum (Asclepiadaceae)
The effect of Gymnema montanum leaves extracts, a sparse plant used in
the ancient period of India, was studied after per os administration on alloxan-induced hyperlipidemia in male Wistar rats (Anathan et al., 2003a).
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
These data indicated that Gymnema montanum represents an effective antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic adjunct for the treatment of diabetes and a potential source of discovery of new per os active agent for future therapy.
The effects of Gymnema montanum on blood glucose levels, plasma
insulin levels, and the carbohydrate metabolic enzymes was studied in
alloxan diabetic rats (Anathan et al 2003b). Per os administration of the
alcoholic extract of Gymnema montanum reduced the blood glucose levels.
This clearly showed its antidiabetic efficacy, which was better than that of
glibenclamide.
Gynura procumbens (Asteraceae)
An ethanolic extract of the leaves of Gynura procumbens was obtained,
and the effects of its per os administration on STZ-diabetic rats was
investigated (Zhang & Tan 2000; Akowuah et al., 2002). The results
indicated that the leaves of Gynura procumbens may have biguanidine-like
activity.
Harpagophytum procumbens (Pedaliaceae)
South Africa is blessed with a rich floral biodiversity of medicinally
useful plants. One such plant is Harpagophytum procumbens. It is widely
used in South African traditional medicine for the treatment, management
and/or control of a variety of human ailments. The plant extract produced
dose-dependent, significant reductions in the blood glucose concentrations of
both fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats (Mahomed et al., 2005). The
results of this experimental animal study indicated that Harpagophytum
procumbens root aqueous extract possesses hypoglycemic properties, and
lend pharmacological support to the suggested folklore uses in the
management of type II diabetes mellitus in some communities of South
Africa.
Helicteres isora (Sterculiaceae)
Helicteres isora root juice has been used in the treatment of diabetes by
several ethnic groups in different parts of India. A reported study suggests that the extract of Hericteres isora has insulin-sensitizing and hypolipidemic activity and has the potential for use in the treatment of type II diabetes (Chakrabarti et al., 2002).
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Hericium erinaceus (Hericaceae)
Recent studies have showed that many types of mushroom, may exert
important biological effects in humans, including antioxidant activities,
regulation of blood lipid levels and reduction of blood glucose levels. In a
reported study, a methanol extract of the fruiting bodies of Hericium
erinaceus was concentrated to remove the solvent, yielding a residue (referred
to as HEM) which was added to the diet of the experimental animals (Wang
et al., 2004). The hypoglycemic effects of feeding HEM to STZ-diabetic rats
were studied. Polydipsia was stronger in induced diabetic rats not fed with
HEM than in those receiving HEM. Rats fed with HEM had significantly
lower blood glucose levels than those not fed with HEM.
Hintonia latiflora (Rubiaceae)
A reported study confirmed the antidiabetic effect of the Hintonia
latiflora bark (copalchi bark) extract in various animal species with
hyperglycemia induced by different methods (Korec et al., 2000). By the use
of the synthetically produced neoflavonoid, coutareagenin, the presented
series of tests provided evidence that coutareagenin, one of the active
substances contained in the Hintonia latiflora bark, produces a reduction of
the diabetic elevated blood sugar levels. The native extract as a whole,
however, has to be regarded as the active substance of Hintonia latiflora
(Copalchi bark).
Hordeum vulgare (Gramineae)
The alleged beneficial properties of Hordeum vulgare (barley) in the
treatment of diabetes were investigated (Naismith et al., 1991). It was suggested that a factor other than the fibre content of the cereals may be responsible for the beneficial effect.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
In adult diabetic rats, a diet containing barley had a modulating effect on
the symptoms of diabetes (blood glucose concentration and water consumption) when compared with a starch or sucrose-based diet (Mahdi & Naismith 1991). It was postulated that the beneficial effect of barley might be explained by its very high content of chromium. Supplementation of the sucrose-based diet with an amount of trivalent inorganic chromium calculated to be equivalent to the available chromium in the barley-based diet abolished the differences in response to the diabetic state. Also
postprandial glycemic response of Hordeum vulgare was
studied in 18 healthy volunteers and 14 patients having type II diabetes
mellitus (Shukla et al., 1991). The glycemic response to barley was
significantly lower than that to white bread in both groups of subjects.
However, the insulinemic response to barley was significantly lower than that
to white bread in healthy subjects only. In type II diabetic subjects, there was
a tendency for the response to barley to be higher than that to white bread 0.5
h after ingestion. Barley, with a low glycemic index, seemed to mobilize
insulin in type II diabetic subjects. This makes it an especially suitable cereal
for diabetic patients.
Hydnocarpus wightiana (Arcariaceae)
Hydnocarpus wightiana is advocated in the traditional medicine in India
to possess strong antidiabetic activity. In the course of identifying bioactive fractions from Indian medicinal plants it was observed that the acetone extract of the seed hulls of Hydnocarpus wightiana possessed strong free radicals scavenging activity, alpha-glucosidase and moderate N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase inhibitory activities (Reddy et al., 2005). Further fractionation of the extract led to the isolation of hydnocarpin, luteolin and isohydnocarpin in substantial yields.
All the compounds showed strong free radical scavenging property.
Furthermore, all the three compounds also showed varying degrees of alpha-glucosidase and N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase inhibitory activity, luteolin
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
being the superior. This study suggested that the presence of antioxidant
molecules along with their enzyme inhibitory activities in the acetone extract
of Hydnocarpus wightiana seed hulls may be responsible for the antidiabetic
properties as advocated in the traditional medicine.
Hygrophila longifolia (Acanthaceae)
The extra-pancreatic effects of the hypoglycemic plant Hygrophila longifolia
have been investigated in rats after per os administration (Fernando et al., 1998).
The results obtained in the present study suggested that Hygrophila longifolia
may exert hypoglycemic action by mechanisms similar to these of the
sulphonylureas.
Hypoxis hemerocallidea (Hypoxidaceae)
A study was undertaken to examine the hypoglycemic effect of the aqueous
extract of Hypoxis hemerocallidea corm (locally known as "African Potato") in
normal (normoglycemic) and in STZ-induced diabetic rats after per os
administration (Mahomed & Ojewole 2003). The results of this experimental
animal study indicated that African potato possessed hypoglycemic activity; and
thus lent credence to the suggested folkloric use of the herb to the control of type
II diabetes mellitus in some communities of South Africa.
Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)
This study was undertaken to compare the per os hypoglycemic activity of
the aqueous extract of the vegetable Ipomoea aquatica ("sweet potato") with that
of the known hypoglycemic drug tolbutamide in glucose challenged Wistar rats
(Malalavidhane et al., 2001; Malalavidhane et al., 2003). The results showed that
the aqueous extract of Ipomoea aquatica was as effective as tolbutamide in
reducing the blood glucose levels of glucose-challenged Wistar rats.
Irvingia gabonesis (Irvingiaceae)
The effects of Dikanut (Irvingia gabonensis), an African viscous
preparation, as supplement in the diet of eleven type II diabetic patients, was studied (Adamson et al., 1990). The dikanut supplement elicited hypolipidemic activity. The reduction in plasma lipids was primarily due to a decrease in LDL, VLDL-cholesterol and triglycerides levels. HDL-cholesterol was increased. The three ATPases of the erythrocyte membrane of the diabetic patients were significantly lower than in normal subjects. When dikanut was consumed by the diabetics for four weeks, the activities of the
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
above enzymes increased significantly. The increases correlated well with
significant reduction of plasma glucose levels. These desirable biochemical
effects mediated by ingestion of a naturally-occurring dietary fibre were
accompanied by improved clinical profile.
Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae)
The hypoglycemic activity of a decoction from Juniperus communis (juniper
berries) both in normoglycemic and in STZ-diabetic rats was studied (Sanchez
et al., 1994). Juniper decoction decreased glycemic levels in normoglycemic rats
through an increase of peripheral glucose utilization or a potentiation of glucose-
induced insulin secretion. The per os administration of the decoction to STZ-
diabetic rats resulted in a significant reduction both in blood glucose levels and in
the mortality index, as well as the prevention of the loss of body weight. This
effect seemed to be mediated by the peripheral action of juniper.
Kalopanax pictus (Araliaceae)
The stem bark of Kalopanax pictus, a tree growing in East Asian
countries, has been traditionally used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, neuronal pain and diabetes mellitus. To search for the anti-diabetic principle from the stem bark of Kalopanax pictus, seven kinds of chemical constituents including hedearagenin and its glycosides were isolated (Park et al., 1998). The anti-diabetic evaluation of these isolates in the STZ-diabetic rats exhibited, after i.p. administration, that kalopanaxsaponin A has a potent anti-diabetic activity in contrast to a mild activity of hedearagenin. In addition, significant hypocholesterolemic and hypolipidemic activities of kalopanaxsaponin A and hedearagenin were observed.
kalo panaxsa ponin A
Lagerstroemia speciosa L. (Lythraceae)
The hypoglycemic effects of Lagerstroemia speciosa, known by the
Tagalog name "banaba" in the Phillipines, were studied using hereditary diabetic mice (type II, KK-AY/Ta Jcl) (Kakuda et al., 1996). The mice were
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
fed a test diet containing the hot-water extract from banaba leaves, the water eluent of the partial fraction unadsorbed onto HP-20 resin of the hot water extract, and the methanol eluent of the partial fraction adsorbed onto HP-20 resin of it for a feeding period of 5 weeks. It is suggested that the hot water extract and especially that adsorbed onto HP-20 resin, obtained from banaba leaves have beneficial effects on controlling of the level of plasma glucose in type II diabetes mellitus.
Glucose transport enhancers were searched for in Lagerstroemia speciosa
and three active ellagitannins, lagerstroemin, flosin B and reginin A increased glucose uptake of rat adipocytes in vitro, and could be responsible for lowering the blood glucose level (Hayashi et al., 2002).
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae)
An ethnomedically-driven approach was used to evaluate the ability of a
pure compound, masoprocol, isolated from the creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) to lower plasma glucose concentration in two mice models of type II diabetes after per os administration (Luo et al., 1998). These data raised the possibility that masoprocol, or other lipoxygenase inhibitors, represents a new approach for the treatment of type II diabetes.
Lepechinia caulescens (Labiatae)
The traditional preparation and the water extracts obtained from the
flowers of Lepechinia caulescens were administered to fasting healthy mice
i.p. (Roman-Ramos et al., 2001). The investigation results showed that only
the traditional preparation and the water extract significantly reduce blood
glucose levels after i.p. administration.
Lepidium sativum L. (Brassicaeae)
The hypoglycemic effect of an aqueous extract of Lepidium sativum
seeds was investigated in normal and STZ-diabetic rats (Eddouks et al.,
2005). It was concluded that the aqueous extract of Lepidium sativum
exhibited a potent hypoglycemic activity in rats, after per os administration,
without affecting the levels of plasma insulin concentration.
Leucas lavandulaefolia Rees (Labiatae)
The antidiabetic activity of Leucas lavandulaefolia extract on STZ-diabetic
rats has been investigated (Saha et al., 1998). The extract caused a significant
reduction of blood glucose levels in STZ-diabetic rats after per os administration.
Loranthus begwensis (Loranthaceae)
The African mistletoe, Loranthus bengwensis, has been widely used in
Nigerian folk medicine to treat diabetes mellitus. The data indicated that
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
African mistletoe possessed significant anti-diabetic activity in STZ-diabetic
rats when administered per os; its anti-diabetic activity appeared to be highly
dependent on the host plant species (Obatomi et al., 1994).
Lupinus termis (Leguminoseae), Cymbopogon proximus
(Halfa barr) (Gramineae) or Kammun quaramany
(Zygophyllacae)
The effect of three species of hypoglycemic herbs on the lipid profile was
investigated in plasma and liver tissues of diabetic and herbs' treated diabetic
rats (Newairy et al., 2002). The obtained data demonstrated that the glycemic
control of all of the three herbal suspensions was associated with their
hypocholesterolemic effects on the hypercholesterolemia of the alloxan-induced
diabetic rats. In conclusion, the Kammun quaramany showed the most potent
effect.
Maesa lancelata (Myrsinaceae)
Maesanin and flaviolin were isolated from the fresh fruit of Maesa
lancelata, which is a East African medicinal plant. These p-benzokinone derivatives showed in vitro inhibitory activity against rat lenses ALR2 (ALR2) (Haraguchi et al., 1996).
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae)
The leaves of Mangifera indica (Mango) are used as an antidiabetic agent
in Nigerian folk medicine. The effect of the aqueous extract of the leaves when administered per os on blood glucose level was assessed in normoglycemic, glucose-induced hyperglycemic and STZ-diabetic rats and the results of this study indicated that the aqueous extract of the leaves of Mangifera indica possess hypoglycemic activity (Aderibigbe et al., 1999; Aderibidge et al., 2001). This action may be due to an intestinal reduction of the absorption of glucose (carbohydrates).
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Momordica charantia (Curcurbiceae), Melia azadirachta
(Meliaceae), Pterocarpus marsupium (Fabaceae), Tinospora
cordifolia (Menispermaceae), Gymnema sylvestre
(Asclepiadaceae), Enicostemma littorale (Gentiaceae),
Emblica officinalis (Euphorbiaceae), Eugenia jambolana
(Myrtaceae), Cassia auriculata (Fabaceae) and Curcuma
longa (Zingeberaceae)
Hyponidd is a herbomineral formulation composed of the extracts of
ten medicinal plants (Momordica charantia, Melia azadirachta, Pterocarpus
marsupium, Tinospora cordifolia, Gymnema sylvestre, Enicostemma littorale,
Emblica officinalis, Eugenia jambolana, Cassia auriculata and Curcuma longa).
Hyponidd was investigated for its possible antihyperglycemic and antioxidant
effect in diabetic rats. The results showed that per os administration of
hyponidd exhibits antihyperglycemic and antioxidant activity in STZ-induced
diabetic rats (Babu et al., 2004).
Momordica charantia (Curcurbiceae)
Momordica charantia, commonly called bitter gourd, is a medicinal plant
used in the Ayurvedic system of medicine for treating various diseases including diabetes mellitus. At present, unripe fruits, seeds and aerial parts of the plant have a widespread use as vegetable and phytomedicine in various parts of the world to treat diabetes (Umesh et al., 2005). Sodium orthovanadate is a well-known insulin mimetic and an antidiabetic compound. The results of a study suggested that Momordica fruit extract and sodium orthovanadate exhibit hypolipidemic as well as hypoglycemic effect in diabetic rats and their effect is pronounced when administered per os. A hypoglycemic peptide, polypeptide-p, has been isolated from fruit, seeds, and tissue of Momordica charantia (Khanna et al., 1981). Polypeptide-p is a very effective hypoglycemic agent when administered s.c. to gerbils, languor, and humans.
Cerasee, a wild variety of Momordica charantia is traditionally prepared
as a tea for the treatment of diabetes mellitus in the West India and Central America. To investigate a possible hypoglycemic effect, concentrated aqueous extracts of cerasee were administered to normal and STZ-diabetic mice (Bailey et al., 1985). In normal mice, i.p. administration of cerasee improved glucose tolerance after 8 hr, and in STZ-diabetic mice the level of hyperglycemia was reduced. Chronic per os administration of cerasee to normal mice for 13 days improved glucose tolerance. The cerasee extracts did
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
not significantly alter plasma insulin concentrations, suggesting that cerasee may exert an extrapancreatic effect to promote glucose disposal.
Investigations were carried out to evaluate the effect of Momordica
charantia on the glucose tolerance of type II diabetic patients (Welihinda et al., 1986). The fruit juice of Momordica charantia was found to significantly improve the glucose tolerance of 73% of the patients investigated while the other 27% failed to respond.
The hypoglycemic effect of per os administered extracts of fruits of
cultivated Momordica charantia (karela) was examined in normal and STZ-diabetic mice (Day et al., 1990). The results suggested that per os administered karela extracts lower glucose concentrations independently of intestinal glucose absorption and involve an extrapancreatic effect.
The Monocordia charantia extract seems to act like insulin or via insulin
secretion from the pancreas, like the action of sulfonyl ureas (Higashino et al.,
1992).
Morinda lucida Benth (Rubiaceae)
The hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic activities of a methanol
extract of Morinda lucida leaves were studied in normal and STZ-diabetic
rats (Olajide et al., 1999). These results suggested that the leaves of Morinda
lucida have a strong glucose lowering property when administered per os to
STZ-treated rats.
Moringa stenopetala (Moringaceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of Moringa stenopetala extract was assessed in
nondiabetic rabbits by blood glucose analysis (Mahonnen et al., 1998). In
vivo experiments were carried out in rabbits that received i.p. the test
material and the standard, glibenclamide. The plant extract, although less
potent than glibenclamide, was found to lower blood glucose concentration.
The hypoglycemic effect was observed to increase with time and with an
increase in the dose of the extract.
Morus insignis (Moraceae)
Ethyl acetate- and n-butanol-soluble fractions of the leaves of Morus
insignis showed a significant hypoglycemic activity on STZ-diabetic rats after per os or i.p. administration (Basnet et al., 1993). From these hypoglycemic activity-showing fractions, two new compounds, mulberrofuran U and moracin M-3-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside were isolated, along with known compounds
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
(beta-sitosterol, beta-sitosterol-3-O-beta-glucopyranoside, ursolic acid and quercetin-3-O-beta-glucopyranoside).
moracin M-3-O- beta- D glucopyranoside
b-sitoster ol-3-O-b eta-g luco pyranoside
quer cetin-3-O-beta-glucopyranoside
Morus alba L. (Moraceae)
A new glycoprotein was purified from the aqueous methanolic extract of
the root bark of Morus alba, which has been used as a component of antidiabetic remedy in Oriental Medicine. This new glycoprotein was named as Moran 20K (Kim et al., 1999). The protein lowered blood glucose level in STZ-diabetic mice model and it also increased the glucose transport in cultured epididymis fat cells. The amino acid composition of the protein was analyzed, and the protein contained above 20% serine and cysteine, comparable to that of insulin. The actual molecular weight of the protein was determined as 21,858 Da.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
polyhydroxylated
dihydroxypyrrolidine-N-propionamide from the root bark of Morus alba L, D-galactopyranosyl-calystegine B and 3-beta,6-beta-dihydroxynortropane from the fruits, were isolated. Fifteen other polyhydroxylated alkaloids were also isolated (Yamashita et al., 2001). 1-Deoxynojirimycin, a potent alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, was concentrated by silkworms feeding on mulberry leaves. Some alkaloids contained in mulberry leaves were potent inhibitors of mammalian digestive glycosidases but not inhibitors of silkworm midgut glycosidases, suggesting that the silkworm has enzymes specially adapted to enable it to feed on mulberry leaves. The possibility of preventing the onset of diabetes and obesity using natural dietary supplements containing 1-deoxynojirimycin and other alpha-glucosidase inhibitors in high concentration is of great potential interest.
(2R,3R,4R)-2-hydr oxymeth yl-3,4- dihydroxypyr rolidine-N- propion amid e
D-galactopyranosyl-ca lyste gine B 3 beta,6 beta-dihydroxynortropane
1-deoxynojirimycin
Murraya koenigii (Rutaceae)
The aqueous extract of Murraya koenigii leaves has been studied in
order to evaluate the hypoglycemic activity in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rabbits after per os administration (Kesari et al., 2005). This plant is promising as it is widely and regularly used in India and other tropical countries as a spice for food flavoring and as such it appeared to be without any side effects and toxicity. The findings from this study suggested that the aqueous extract of these leaves may be prescribed as adjunct to dietary therapy and drug treatment for controlling diabetes mellitus.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Musa sapientum (Musaceae)
Musa sapientum, commonly known as banana, is widely used in Indian
folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. The flower extract
prevented a decrease in body weight, and also resulted in a decrease in free
radical formation in experimental animals after per os administration (Pari &
Umamaheswari 2000). Thus the study showed that oral administration of
banana flower extract had an antihyperglycemic action. The decrease in
thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and the increase in reduced GSH,
glutathione peroxidase, SOD and CAT clearly showed the antioxidant
property of the flower extract.
Myrcia multiflora (Myrtaceae)
The leaves of Myrcia multiflora, which have been used as a specific
medicine against diabetes with the popular name "plant insulin" in Brazil, were found to show inhibitory activities on ALR2 and alpha-glucosidase as well as on the increase of serum glucose level in sucrose-loaded rats and in alloxan-induced diabetic mice (Yoshikawa et al., 1998). From the ethyl acetate-soluble portion, new flavanone glycosides, myrciacitrins I and II, and new acetophenone glycosides, myrciaphenones A and B, were isolated together with several known compounds such as five flavonol glycosides, myricitrin, mearnsitrin, quercitrin, desmanthin-1, and guaijaverin. The principal components of this natural medicine including new glycosides, myrciacitrin I and myrciaphenone B, were found to show potent inhibitory activities on ALR2 and alpha-glucosidase.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae)
Myrtus communis leaves as well as the volatile oil (Myrtii Oleum)
obtained from the leaves are used to lower the blood glucose level in type II
diabetic patients in Turkish folk medicine (Sepici et al., 2004). The above
observations showed that Myrtii oleum exerted hypoglycemic as well as mild
hypotriglyceridemic activity in diabetic experimental animals after per os
administration. The reduction in blood glucose level may be due to the
reversible inhibition of glucosidases present in the brush-border of the small
intestinal mucosa, the higher rate of glycolysis as envisaged by the higher
activity of GK, as one of the key enzymes of glycolysis, and enhanced rate of
glycogenesis as evidenced by the higher amount of liver glycogen present
after the myrtii oleum administration.
Nelumbo nucifera (Nymphaeaceae)
Per os administration of the ethanolic extract of rhizomes of Nelumbo
nucifera markedly reduced the blood sugar level of normal, glucose-fed hyperglycemic and STZ-diabetic rats, when compared with control animals
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
(Mukherjee et al., 1997). The extract improved glucose tolerance and
potentiated the action of exogenously injected insulin in normal rats.
Ocimum sanctum L. (Lamiaceae)
Per os administration of alcoholic extract of leaves of Ocinum sanctum
(Holy basil) led to marked lowering of blood sugar level in normal, glucose
fed hyperglycemic and STZ-diabetic rats (Chattopadhyay et al., 1993).
Further, the extract potentiated the action of exogenous insulin in normal rats.
Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of the methanolic extract of Ocimum
gratissimum leaves was evaluated in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats
(Aguiyi et al., 2000). I.p. injection of the extract (400 mg/kg) significantly
reduced plasma levels both in normal and diabetic rats.
Ocimum canum (Lamiaceae)
Aqueous extract of Ocimum canum, is used by some Ghanaians to
manage diabetes mellitus. In vivo modulation of levels of fasting blood
glucose by Ocimum canum extract was evaluated in type II diabetes mellitus
using a genetically diabetic animal model, and its effects on glucose-
stimulated insulin release in vitro were monitored using isolated rat
pancreatic β islet cells (Nyarkoa et al., 2002). The results showed that fasting
blood glucose levels and body weight decreased significantly in diabetic and
non-diabetic mice, which were administered aqueous extract of Ocinum
canum. In vitro, the extract significantly enhanced insulin release from
isolated rat pancreatic β islet cells. These results could explain the use of
Ocinum canum in Ghanaian folk medicine to manage diabetes mellitus.
Olea europaea (Oleaceae)
The hypoglycemic activity of olive leafs was studied (Gonzalex et al.,
1992). Maximum hypoglycemic activity was obtained from samples collected in the winter months, especially in February. One of the compounds responsible for this activity was oleuropeoside. This compound also demonstrated antidiabetic activity in experimental animals with alloxan-induced diabetes after per os administration. The hypoglycemic activity of this compound may result from two mechanisms: (a) potentiation of glucose-induced insulin release, and (b) increased peripheral uptake of glucose.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Opuntia robusta (Cactaceae)
The influence of Opuntia robusta (prickly pear), a traditionally used
dietary nutrient against diabetes mellitus among the American Indian
population, was examined in 15 young patients suffering from familial
heterozygous isolated hypercholesterolemia (Wolfram et al. 2001). After
daily consumption of broiled edible pulp of prickly pear the findings
indicated that the regular ingestion of Opuntia robusta was able to
significantly reduce in vivo oxidation injury in a group of patients suffering
from familial hypercholesterolemia. This traditional food of the American
Indians thus may have a significant cardiovascular benefit.
Opuntia streptacantha Lemaire (Cactaceae)
Nopal stems (Opuntia streptacantha) are used as a food source in Mexico.
To assess the hypoglycemic effect of the Opuntia streptacantha Lemaire (nopal), three groups of patients with type II diabetes mellitus were studied (Frati-Munari et al., 1988). This study showed that the stems of Opuntia streptacantha, when ingested, caused a hypoglycemic effect in the diabetic patients. The mechanism of this effect is unknown, but an increased insulin sensitivity was suggested.
To assess the relationship between the doses of Opuntia streptacantha
and its acute hypoglycemic action in diabetics, eight patients with type II
diabetes mellitus were studied (Frati-Murati et al., 1989). A significant direct
correlation was noticed between the doses and the hypoglycemic effect.
Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae)
The effect of an aqueous extract of Origanum vulgare leaves on blood
glucose levels was investigated in normal and STZ-diabetic rats (Lemhadri et al.,
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
2004). It was concluded that an aqueous extract exhibits an anti-hyperglycemic activity in STZ-diabetic rats without affecting basal plasma insulin concentrations.
Five polar constituents of Origanum vulgare were investigated for their
ability to inhibit ALR2, the first enzyme of the polyol pathway implicated in the secondary complications of diabetes (Koukoulitsa et al., 2006). Rosmarinic acid and lithospermic acid were the more active ALR2 inhibitors while caffeic acid was inactive.
lithospermic acid
Otholobium pubescens (Fabaceae)
The known compound bakuchiol was isolated from an extract of Otholobium
pubescens. Per os administration of backuchiol reduced blood glucose levels in a dose-dependent fashion in diabetic mice and did not display a hypoglycemic effect when tested in lean mice (Krenisky et al., 1999).
Paeonia lactiflora Pall. (Panunculaceae)
Paeonia lactiflora root has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for
more than a millennium, with claims of antispasmodic, tonic, astringent and analgesic properties. The principal bioactive ingredient, paeoniflorin, a monoterpene glucoside, was isolated from the root of Paeonia lactiflora (Shibata et al., 1963).
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
The roots produced a significant blood sugar lowering effect in STZ-
diabetic rats after per os administration. Plasma insulin level was not changed
in paeoniflorin-treated normoglycemic rats indicating an insulin-independent
action. Also, the above mentioned glucoside reduced the elevation of blood
sugar in glucose challenged rats. Increase of glucose utilization by paeoniflorin
can thus be considered (Hsu et al., 1997).
Panax ginseng (Aralilaceae), Anemarrhena asphodeloides
(Liliaceae), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Fabaceae)
The antihyperglycemic interaction (blend effect) of component herbs
included in a traditional Chinese prescription, Byakko-ka-ninjin-to (BN;
consisted of five herbs, ginseng, anemarrhena, licorice, gypsum and rice) was
investigated using genetically obese diabetic KK-CA(y) mice and alloxan-
diabetic mice (Kimura et al., 1999). The results indicated that the
antihyperglycemic effects depend on four of the herbs (not gypsum) and Ca2+
in the blend.
Panax ginseng (Araliaceae)
Ginseng is well known to be a good tonic for health care. With two-
dimensional regulation to blood glucose (to lower hyperglycemia and rise hypoglycemia, not to influence normal blood glucose), many active constituents have been isolated and some preparations of ginseng have been developed and used in clinical treatment of diabetes.
Some fractions extracted from ginseng radix caused hypoglycemic effect
on alloxan diabetic mice after they were injected i.v. and the results indicated that some ginseng fractions stimulated insulin release, especially glucose-
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
induced insulin release from pancreatic islets and thereby lowered the blood glucose level (Kimura et al., 1981).
In a double-blind placebo-controlled study, 36 type II diabetic patients
were treated for 8 weeks with ginseng or placebo (Sotaniemi et al., 1995). Ginseng therapy elevated mood, improved psychophysical performance, and reduced fasting blood glucose and body weight. The 200mg dose of ginseng improved glycated hemoglobin and physical activity. Placebo reduced body weight and altered the serum lipid profile but did not alter fasting blood glucose. Therefore, ginseng may be a useful therapeutic adjunct in the management of type II diabetes mellitus.
A preliminary short-term clinical study was performed to assess whether
American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L) affects postprandial glycemia in
humans (Vuksan et al., 2000). American ginseng attenuated postprandial
glycemia in both diabetic and non diabetic groups after per os administration.
For nondiabetic subjects, to prevent unintended hypoglycemia it may be
important that the American ginseng be taken with the meal.
Pandanus odorus Ridl. (Pantadaceae)
Hypoglycemic activity-guided fraction led to the isolation of the known
compound, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, from Pandanus odorus (Thai name: Toei-hom) (Peungvicha et al., 1998a). This compound showed a hypoglycemic effect in normal rats after per os administration. Additionally, the compound increased serum insulin levels and liver glycogen content in normal rats.
4-hydroxybenzoic acid
In STZ-diabetic rats per os administration of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid
caused a decrease in plasma glucose levels dose-dependently. The compound
did not affect serum insulin level and liver glycogen content in the diabetic
model, but increased glucose consumption in normal and diabetic rat
diaphragms. These results suggested that 4-hydroxybenzoic acid produced a
hypoglycemic effect mediated by an increase in the peripheral glucose
consumption (Peungvicha et al., 1998b).
Perilla frutescens (Viridis)
Four monoterpene glycosides, perillosides A–D were isolated from the
leaves of Perilla frutescens and were found to be inhibitors of rat lenses
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
ALR2 (Fujita et al., 1995). Perillosides A and C showed the highest inhibitory activity. Furthermore, derivatives of these monoterpene glycosides were synthesized and their activities on rat lenses ALR2 were determined to elucidate structure–activity relationships.
perilloside A: R=CH2
perilloside C:1,4-trans
peril oside B: R=CO
perilloside D:1,4-cis
Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae)
An investigation was carried out to evaluate the effect of Phaseolus
vulgaris (white beans), an indigenous plant used in Unani and Ayurvedic
medicine in India, on blood glucose, plasma insulin, cholesterol,
triglycerides, free fatty acids, phospholipids, and fatty acid composition of
total lipids in liver, kidney, and brain of normal and STZ-diabetic rats
(Leelavinothan & Subramanian 2004). The results suggested that Phaseolus
vulgaris exhibited hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects in STZ-diabetic
rats after per os administration. It also prevented the fatty acid changes
observed during diabetes.
Phellinus baumii (Hymenochaetaceae)
The antidiabetic effect of the crude exopolysaccharides produced from
submerged mycelial culture of Phellinus baumii (mushroom) in STZ-diabetic
rats was investigated (Hwang et al., 2005). The results suggested that per os
administrated exopolysaccharides exhibited considerable hypoglycemic
effect in STZ-induced diabetic rats and that they may be useful for the
management of diabetes mellitus.
Phyllanthus amarus (Euphorbiaceae)
Diuretic, hypotensive and hypoglycemic effects of Phyllanthus amarus
(syn. Phyllanthus niruri) on human subjects were assessed. Nine mild hypertensives (four of them also suffering from diabetes mellitus) were treated per os with a preparation of the whole plant of Phyllantus amarus for 10 days (Srividya & Periwal 1995). A significant reduction in systolic blood
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
pressure in non-diabetic hypertensives subjects was noted. Blood glucose level was also significantly reduced in the treated group. Clinical observations revealed no harmful side effects. These observations indicated that Phyllanthus amarus is a potential diuretic, hypotensive and hypoglycemic drug for humans.
In contrast, the results from another study demonstrated that one week
per os treatment with the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus did not result the lowering of both fasting blood glucose level and postprandial blood glucose level in untreated type II diabetic patients (Mainen et al., 2001).
Ellagic acid and two more compounds, brevifolin and ethyl brevifolic
carboxylate were isolated from Phyllanthus amarus and were found to inhibit rat lenses ALR2 (Shimizu et al., 1989).
R=Et: e thyl brevifolin car boxylate
Phyllanthus sellowianus (Euphorbiaceae)
Phyllanthus sellowianus is a plant used in folk medicine as a
hypoglycemic and diuretic agent. The reduction in blood glucose levels obtained with two certain fractions was similar to that observed with glibenclamide which was used as a reference for the hypoglycemic activity (Hnatyazyna et al., 2002). The tested fractions revealed the presence of flavonoid compounds, of which isoquercitrin and rutin were the major constituents, respectively. The possible involvement of these flavonoids in the hypoglycemic effect of the active fractions was discussed.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Piper sarmentosum Roxb. (Piperaceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of the water extract of the whole plant of Piper
sarmentosum (Thai name: Chaplu) was examined in normal and STZ-diabetic
rats (Peungvicha et al., 1998). These results demonstrated that the water
extract of whole plant of Piper sarmentosum, when administered per os, has a
hypoglycemic effect in rats.
Polygala senega L. (Polygalaceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of the rhizomes of Polygala senega was
investigated in normal and KK-Ay mice, one of the model animals of type II diabetes mellitus (Kako et al., 1996). It was proposed that the hypoglycemic effect that occurred after i.p. administration was without altering the insulin levels and with the need of the presence of insulin in order to act. In addition, one of the active components of this hypoglycemic effect was identified as a triterpenoid glycoside, senegin-II (as a mixture of isomers).
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Polygonatum officinale (Liliaceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of the rhizomes of Polygonatum officinale was
investigated in both normal and STZ-diabetic mice (Kato 1994). The
methanol extract of rhizomes of Polygonatum officinale reduced the blood
glucose of normal mice after i.p. administration and also significantly
lowered the blood glucose of STZ-diabetic mice. It also suppressed
epinephrine-induced hyperglycemia in mice. In addition, the n-butanol
fraction of the methanolic extract elicited a significant decrease in the blood
glucose level of STZ-diabetic mice.
Potentilla candicans (Rosaceae)
Two derivatives of ellagic acid have been isolated from "Sinfito", the
root of Potentilla candicans, a plant traditionally used for the treatment of diabetic cataract and as an astringent in Mexico (Terashima et al., 1990). These derivatives have been found to inhibit in vitro ALR2.
Ellagic a cid: R1=R2=R3=R4=HA. R1=H, R2=R3=R4=MeB. R1=SO3K, R2=R3=R4=Me
Prunus davidiana (Rhamnaceae)
Blood glucose and total lipid levels in STZ-diabetic were determined
after i.p. administration of a methanolic extract of Prunus davidiana stems and its main component, prunin (= naringenin 7-O-beta-D-glucoside) (Yokozawa & Oura 1991). From the data obtained it was concluded that i.p. administration of the methanolic extract and prunin produced a significant hypoglycemic effect. Total blood lipids were also decreased by these substances. Thus, it was suggested that this methanolic extract contained one or more hypoglycemic principles including the main flavanone glycoside, prunin, which can significantly reduce the levels of blood glucose and total lipids in STZ-diabetic rats.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
narigeni n 7-O -beta -D-g luco side
Psacalium decompositum (Asteraceae)
The hypoglycemic effect of the hexane, methanol and water extracts
obtained from roots of Psacalium decompositum was investigated in fasting healthy mice (Alarcon-Aguilar 2002). Only the water extract significantly reduced blood glucose in a dose-dependent manner in normal mice after i.p. administration. This water extract was macerated with methanol obtaining a precipitate (WMP fraction), and it was studied in healthy and alloxan-diabetic mice. The WMP fraction showed significant hypoglycemic activity in healthy and mild diabetic mice, but the administration of this fraction to animals with severe diabetes did not cause any significant decrease in blood glucose levels. The main constituents of this fraction are the sesquiterpenouds cacacol, cacalone and maturine.
Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae)
During a screening of medicinal plants for inhibition of PTP1B, an
extract from Psidium guajava leaves exhibited significant inhibitory effect on
PTP1B (Oh et al., 2005). Thus, its antidiabetic effect on diabetic mice was
evaluated. Taken together, it was suggested that the extract from Psidium
guajava leaves possessed antidiabetic effect in type II diabetic mice model
and this effect is, at least in part, mediated via the inhibition of PTP1B.
Psoralea corylifolia (Papilionaceae)
PTP1B plays a major role in the negative regulation of insulin signaling,
and this establishes this protein as an attractive therapeutic target for diabetes. Bioassay-guided fractionation of the EtOAc-soluble extract of the seeds of
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Psoralea corylifolia afforded two PTP1B inhibitory compounds, psoralidin and bakuchiol. (Kim et al., 2005).
Pterocarpus marsupium L. (Fabaceae) and Trigonella
foenum-graecum L. (Leguminosae)
Insulin resistance (hyperinsulinemia) is now recognized as a major
contributor to the development of glucose intolerance, dyslipidemia and
hypertension in type II diabetic patients. Aqueous extracts of Pterocarpus
marsupium bark and Trigonella foenum-graecum seeds have been shown to
exert hypoglycemic/antihyperglycemic effect in experimental as well as in
clinical settings (Grover et al., 2005). Results of this study, in addition to
previous clinical benefits of Pterocarpus marsupium seen in type II diabetic
subjects, are suggestive of usefulness of its bark in insulin resistance, the
associated disorder of type II diabetes. Though several antidiabetic principles
(epicatechin, pterosupin, marsupin and pterostilbene) have been identified,
yet future studies are required to assert their efficacy and safety.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Long-term complications are frequently developed in diabetes mellitus
and are difficult to treat. Per os administration of the above two plant extracts
exerted a favorable effect on body weight and blood glucose and on the
course of cataract development. The effects were best with Pterocarpus
marsupium. The exerted anti-cataract effect was evident from the decreased
opacity index (Vatsa et al., 2004).
Pueraria thunbergiana (Leguminosae)
Pueraria thunbergiana has been used as a therapeutic agent for diabetes
mellitus in traditional Korean medicine. The results suggested that its main constituent, kaikasaponin III (as a mixture of isomers), may exhibit its hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects by up-regulating or down-regulating antioxidant mechanisms via the changes in Phase I and II enzyme activities (Jongwon et al., 2004).
Punica granatum (Punicaceae)
Male flowers of Punica granatum are used for the treatment of diabetes
mellitus in Unani medicine. Per os administration of its aqueous-ethanolic (50%,
v/v) extract led to significant blood glucose lowering effect in normal, glucose-
fed hyperglycemic and alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Jafri et al., 2000).
Pycnanthus angolensis Warb (Myristicaceae)
Two new compounds, pycnanthuquinone A and pycnanthuquinone B,
were isolated from leaves and stems of the African plant, Pycnanthus angolensis Warb. Pycnanthuquinones A and B are the first representatives of
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
a novel terpenoid-type quinone skeleton, and both compounds possessed significant antihyperglycemic activity (Fort et al., 2000). Pycnanthuquinones A and B were tested for antihy-perglycemic activity in diabetic mice by per os administration. Blood glucose lowering effects were observed for both compounds.
pycnanthuqui none A
pycnanthuqui none B
Retama raetam (Fabaceae)
The effect of the aqueous extract of Retama raetam on blood glucose
levels was investigated in fasting normal and STZ-diabetic rats after single
and repeated per os administration (Maghrani et al., 2003). These findings
suggested that the aqueous extract of Retama raetam possessed significant
hypoglycemic effect in both normal and STZ-diabetic rats.
The purpose of another study was to determine the underlying
mechanism of the hypoglycemic activity of an aqueous extract perfusion of
Retama raetam in normal and STZ-diabetic rats after p.o. administration
(Maghrani et al., 2005). It was concluded that an aqueous extract perfusion
caused a potent inhibition of renal glucose reabsorption. This renal effect was
at least one mechanism to explain the observed hypoglycemic activity of this
plant in normal and diabetic rats.
Rubus fructicosis L. (Rosaceae), Globularia alypum L.
(Globulariaceae)
The present study investigated the effect of per os administration of the
aqueous extract of Rubus fructicosis and Globularia alypum leaves on blood glucose levels in normal and STZ-diabetic rats (Maghrani et al., 2002). In normal rats, single and repeated per os administration of Rubus fructicosis lowered significantly the blood glucose levels, while, Globularia alypum treatment did not change blood glucose levels. In STZ-diabetic rats, single
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
and repeated per os administration of both plant extracts produced significant
decrease of blood glucose levels. Both treatments did not affect insulin
secretion both in normal and STZ-diabetic rats, indicating that mechanism(s)
by which these plants decrease blood glucose levels is extra-pancreatic at
least, for the doses used. In addition, the acute toxicity study revealed that the
aqueous extracts may be considered relatively safe. These findings indicated
that Rubus fructicosis and Globularia alypum represent effective blood
glucose lowering and a potential source for discovery of new per os active
compound(s) for future therapy.
Salacia reticulata (Hippocrateaceae)
Salacia reticulata, a plant distributed in Sri Lankan and Indian forests,
has been used as a supplementary food in Japan to prevent obesity and diabetes. Polyphenolic compounds may be involved in its antiobesity effects in rats through inhibition of fat metabolizing enzymes and enhanced lipolysis (Yoshikawa et al., 2002).
The hypoglycemic activity of the aqueous extract of the root bark of
Salacia reticulata (known as kotala himbatu) has been confirmed in the
normal healthy rat model (Kumara et al., 2005). The results suggested that
the hypoglycemic effect of Salacia reticulata in alloxan diabetic rats after per
os administration may involve an extrapancreatic effect on glucose
production or clearance.
Salacia oblonga Wall (Celastraceae)
Salacia oblonga, known as Chundan, is distributed in the southern
regions of India and the roots of Salacia oblonga have been extensively used as a remedy for gonorrhea, rheumatism, itch, asthma, and diabetes in the Ayurvedic system of traditional Indian medicine.
The petroleum ether extract of the root bark of Salacia oblonga Wall was
studied in STZ-diabetic rats for anti-lipid peroxidative activity after i.p. administration (Krishnakumar et al., 1999; Krishnakumar et al., 2000). The results suggested that Salacia oblonga root bark extract possessed anti-diabetic and anti-peroxidative principles, and may be of value in the treatment of diabetes and associated cardiovascular complications. Also, three triterpenoids, kotalagenin 16-acetate, maytenfolic acid, 3α,22α-dihydroxyolean-12-en-29-oic acid and two diterpenoids, 19-hydroxyferruginol and lambertic acid, were isolated from the root of Salacia oblonga Wall and showed inhibitory activity on rat lenses ALR2 (Matsuda et al., 1999).
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
maytento lic acid: 22β-hydroxy
19-hydroxyferrugin ol: R=CH2OH
kotalagen ic 16-acetate
3α22α dihydroxyolean -12-en-29 -oic acid: 22a-hyd roxy
lambetic acid: R=CO OH
Salvia miltiorhiza (Lamiaceae)
"Danshen", the dried root and rhizome of Salvia miltiorhiza is a plant that
is officially listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and is widely used for treatment of hematological abnormalities, heart diseases, menstrual disorder, miscarriage, hepatitis, and swelling. Seven abietane-type diterpenoids, danshenols A and B, dihydrotanshinone I, tanshinone I, cryptotanshinone, tanshinone IIA and (-)-danshexinkun A, were isolated from this plant. All these compounds showed inhibitory activity against rat lenses ALR2 with danshenol A being the strongest inhibitor (Kasimu et al., 1997; Tezuka et al., 1997).
∆15 tansh ione I
∆15 tansh ione I A
Salvianolic acid A, isolated from Salvia miltiorhiza, has been reported to
have ALR2 inhibitory activity. Thus, the rat lenses ALR2 inhibitory activity of seventeen Salvia plants has been examined (Du et al., 1995; Kasimu et al., 1998). Four compounds were isolated from the root of Salvia deserta (Xinjiang-Danshen), lithospermic acid B, salvianolic acid K, salviaflaside and rosmarinic acid. They all were reported as ALR2 inhibitors.
lithosper mic aci d B
salvionolic acid A
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
salviaflaside: R=Glc
rormarinic acid: R=H
salvionolic acid K
Sanguis draxonis (Acacae)
The extracts of Sanguis Draxonis, a kind of natural plant exudates, have
been prescribed for handling diabetic disorders as a Chinese traditional
medicine. Surprisingly, these exudates were found to be a good material for
per os insulin delivery. In conclusion, the results demonstrated that Sanguis
draxonis elicits a long-term hypoglycemic effect significantly after per os
administration in STZ-diabetic rats and it can be considered as a stable and
effective system for per os insulin delivery (Zhenqinga et al., 2004).
Sclerocarya birrea (Anacardiaceae)
In order to appraise some of the ethnomedical uses of Sclerocarya birrea,
the present study was undertaken to investigate the analgesic, anti-
inflammatory and anti-diabetic properties of the plant's stem-bark aqueous
extract in experimental models of pain, inflammation and diabetes mellitus
(Ojewole 2004). The results of this experimental study on rats indicated that
Sclerocarya birrea stem-bark aqueous extract possessed analgesic, anti-
inflammatory and hypoglycemic properties after per os administration. These
findings gave pharmacological support to the suggested folkloric uses of the
plant's stem-bark in the management and/or control of pain, inflammatory
conditions, and type II diabetes mellitus in some communities of South
Africa.
Scoparia dulcis L. (Scrophulariaceae)
Scoparia dulcis, commonly known as Sweet Broomweed, is widely used
in Indian folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Per os administration of the aqueous extract of the Scoparia dulcis leaves for 45 days in experimental animals resulted in a significant reduction in blood glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin and an increase in total haemoglobin (Pari & Venkateswaran 2002). The aqueous extract also prevented a decrease in the body weight. A per os glucose tolerance test was also performed in diabetic rats, in which there was a significant improvement in glucose
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
tolerance in animals treated with aqueous extract of the plant and the effect was comparable to that of glibenclamide.
A significant increase in the activities of plasma insulin, SOD, CAT,
glutathione peroxidase, glutathione-S-transferase and reduced GSH was observed in brain on treatment with Scoparia dulcis plant extract (Pari & Latha 2004). Since the study of induction of the antioxidant enzymes is considered to be a reliable marker for evaluating the antiperoxidative efficacy of a medicinal plant, these findings suggested a possible antiperoxidative role for Scoparia dulcis plant extract. Hence, in addition to antidiabetic effect, Scoparia dulcis possessed antioxidant potential that may be used for therapeutic purposes.
Another study further confirmed the antihyperglycemic effect of the plant
extract and also demonstrated the consistent strong antioxidant properties of Scoparia dulcis used in the traditional medicine (Latha et al., 2004).
In experimental diabetes, enzymes of glucose and fatty acid metabolism
are markedly altered. The effect of Scoparia dulcis L. plant extract was
investigated on hepatic key metabolic enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism
in STZ-diabetic rats (Pari & Latha 2004). The results indicated that the
aqueous extract of Scoparia dulcis, when administered using intragastric tube,
showed antihyperglycemic effect by attenuating the above biochemical
alterations in STZ-induced diabetes.
Scoparia dulcis has been documented as a traditional treatment of
diabetes. The obtained results revealed the possible therapeutic value of
Scoparia dulcis for the better control, management and prevention of diabetes
mellitus progression (Latha et al., 2004).
Smallanthus sonchifolius (Asteraceae)
Smallanthus sonchifolius (yacon), originating from South America, has
become popular in Japan and in New Zealand for its tubers. The plant is also successfully cultivated in Central Europe in the Czech Republic in particular. Its aerial part is used in Japan and in Brazil as a component in medicinal teas. Based on this, the aqueous leaf extracts have been studied in vitro for their hypoglycemic activity (Valentoval et al., 2004) using rat hepatocyte primary cultures. The observed combination of radical scavenging, cytoprotective and anti-hyperglycemic activity indicated a possible use of Smallanthus sonchifolius leaves in the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases involving oxidative stress and diabetes.
In another study, the hypoglycemic effect of the water extract of the
leaves of Smallantus sonchifolius (yacon) was examined in normal, transiently hyperglycemic and STZ-diabetic rats after per os or i.p.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
administration. The results showed that yacon water extract produces an
increase in plasma insulin concentration (Aybar et al., 2001).
Solanum lycocarpum (Solanaceae)
In Brazil, a preparation obtained from the fruits of Solanum lycocarpum,
popularly known as 'fruta-de-lobo' (wolf-fruit), has been widely employed for diabetes management, obesity and to decrease cholesterol levels. The medicinal preparation consists of the green fruits which are ground in water and filtered. The white "gum" deposited is decanted and slowly dried providing a powder which is commercialized in capsules with the name "polvilho-de-lobeira". Through phytochemical analysis of this phytomedicine and the fruit of Solanum lycocarpum polysaccharides were found as the main components. Some of the polysaccharides slowed gastric emptying and act on the endocrinous system affecting the liberation of gastrointestinal hormones, lowering blood glucose levels. The hypocholesterolemic activity could be due to the increased fecal bile acid excretion as well as to the action of the short-chain fatty acids, coming from fermentation, on the synthesis of delta-aminolevulinate and by the increase of the cholesterol 7-alpha-hydroxylase and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase synthesis (DalAgnol & Lino von Poser 2000).
On the other hand, the hypoglycemic effect induced by the starch
obtained from the unripe fruits of Solanum lycocarpum was investigated after
per os administration on diabetic mice (Oliveira et al., 2003). The results did
not provide evidence for a hypoglycemic effect associated with the
polysaccharide fraction of Solanum lycocarpum in either normal or
hyperglycemic mice. These data stresses the need for adequate
pharmacological investigation of the natural products widely used in folk
medicine.
Sorbus domestica (Rosaceae)
Sorbus domestica fruits are shelf grown at the mountainous regions of
the northern Greece and consumed by the local population, not only as a nutritious food, but also traditionally as an antidiabetic agent, as it is believed to prevent diabetic symptoms (Termetzi et al., 2008). A study was conducted in order to demonstrate in vitro these traditional uses of Sorbus domestica fruits as well as to compare the different ways people use it and highlight their significance in the diet as protective agents against the above mentioned pathologies. The diethyl ether and the ethyl acetate fractions showed high
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
ALR2 inhibitory activity, without important differences between the different
maturity stages of the fruits. The obtained data emphasized the fruits' potent
pharmacotherapeutical role against the long-term diabetic complications
(Termetzi et al., 2007).
Spergularia purpurea (Caryophyllaceae)
In order the underlying mechanism of the hypoglycemic activity of the
aqueous extract of Spergularia purpurea to be determined, it was tested in
diabetic mice after per os administration. The obtained data indicated that the
aqueous extract of Spergularia purpurea inhibited endogenous glucose
production in mice. This inhibition was at least one mechanism explaining
the observed hypoglycemic activity of this plant in diabetic animals (Eddouks
et al., 2003).
Spinacea oleracea L. (Salsolaceae)
A study was performed in healthy rabbits subjected to weekly s.c.
glucose tolerance tests after intragastric administration of water, tolbutamide
or traditional preparation of Spinacea oleracea The results showed a
significant decrease in the area under glucose tolerance curve and the
hyperglycemic peak (Roman-Ramos et al., 1995).
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni (Compositae)
Stevioside is present in the plant Stevia rebaudiana. Plant extracts
have been used for the treatment of diabetes in, for example, Brazil, although a positive effect on glucose metabolism has not been unequivocally demonstrated. The acute effects of stevioside in type II diabetic patients when administered per os were studied. It was found that stevioside reduces postprandial blood glucose levels in type II diabetic patients, indicating beneficial effects on the glucose metabolism. Stevioside may be advantageous in the treatment of type II diabetes (Gregersen et al., 2004).
The effects of stevioside on the glucose and insulin metabolism in
normal rats and STZ-diabetic rats were studied. Stevioside was able to regulate blood glucose levels by enhancing not only insulin secretion, but also insulin utilization in insulin-deficient rats; the latter was due to decreased PEPCK gene expression in rat liver by stevioside's action of slowing down gluconeogenesis (Chen et al., 2005).
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Sutherlandia frutescens (Fabaceae)
Sutherlandia frutescens is widely used in South African traditional
medicine for the management and/or control of a plethora of human ailments.
In order to scientifically apprise some of the ethnomedical uses of
Sutherlandia frutescens, a study was undertaken to investigate the analgesic,
anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic properties of the plants shoot aqueous
extract in experimental animal models (Ojewole 2004). The results of this
experimental animal study suggested that the plant's shoot aqueous extract
possesses analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic properties, and
thus lend pharmacological credence to the suggested folkloric uses of the
herb in the management and/or control of painful, arthritic and other
inflammatory conditions, as well as for type II diabetes mellitus in some
communities of South Africa.
Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae)
A xanthone was isolated from the hexane fraction of the Swertia
chirayita plant, swerchirin. It has a very significant blood sugar lowering effect after per os administration in fasted, fed, glucose loaded, and tolbutamide pre-treated albino rat models (Bajpai et al., 1991).
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Syzygium cumini L. (Myrtaceae)
The effect of feeding along with diet of different fractions obtained from
the seeds of Syzygium cumini was tried on fasting blood glucose and glucose
tolerance in normal and alloxan diabetic rats (Pandey et al., 2002). The
observations indicated that the hypoglycemic effect of Syzygium cumini
seeds, administered per os, was due to water soluble gummy fibre. The water
insoluble neutral detergent fibre and other constituents of the seeds had no
significant hypoglycemic effects.
Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)
Syzygium aromaticum (commonly referred to as clove) extract acts like
insulin in hepatocytes and hepatoma cells by reducing PEPCK and G6Pase
gene expression. Much like to insulin, clove-mediated repression is reversed
by PI3K inhibitors and NAC inhibitors. The results demonstrated that
consumption of certain plant-based diets may have beneficial effects for the
treatment of diabetes and indicate a potential role for compounds derived
from clove as insulin-mimetic agents (Prasadb et al., 2005).
Syzygium cordatum (Myrtaceae)
The present study investigated the hypoglycemic effect of Syzygium
cordatum leaf extract in non-diabetic and STZ-diabetic rats when injected
into the central lateral ventral. Syzygium cordatum leaf extract contains
compounds that could be effective in mild diabetes mellitus or in cases of
glucose tolerance impairment (Musabayane et al. 2005).
Syzygium cumini and Syzyrium jambos (Mystaceae)
The use of alternative therapies to treat diabetes, including teas prepared
with different vegetables, is widespread in Brazil. In Porto Alegre, a southern city of Brazil, the tea prepared from leaves of Syzygium cumini or Syzyrium jambos has been reported to be used frequently by diabetic patients. The postulated antihyperglycemic effect of the Syzyrium cumini was investigated in three experiments. In the first, a randomized, parallel, placebo controlled trial, tea prepared from leaves of Syzygium cumini did not present any antihyperglycernic effect in 30 non diabetic young volunteers submitted to a glucose blood tolerance test. In the animal experiments, the effect of increasing doses of the crude extract prepared from leaves of the plant and administered with oro-gastric tube, on the post-prandial blood glucose level
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
of normal rats and STZ-diabetic rats was tested. These results do not rule out
hypoglycemic effects in patients with type II diabetes mellitus, but strongly
suggest that this herb can not be recommended for an antihyperglycemic
treatment (Teixeira et al., 2000).
Telfaria occidentalis (Compositae)
The hypoglycemic effect of the aqueous extract of the leaves of Telfaria
occidentalis was assessed in normoglycemic, glucose induced hyperglycemic
and STZ-diabetic diabetic mice. The results of this study indicated that the
aqueous extract of the leaves of Telfaria occidentalis possess hypoglycemic
activity after per os administraton (Aderibidge et al., 1999).
Tetrapleura tetraptera (Fabaceae)
The fruit of Tetrapleura tetraptera is frequently used in Tropical African
traditional medicine for the management and/or control of an array of human
ailments, including arthritis and other inflammatory conditions, asthma,
diabetes mellitus, hypertension, epilepsy and schistosomiasis. The present
study was undertaken to examine the anti-inflammatory and hypoglycaemic
effects of Tetrapleura tetraptera fruit aqueous extract in rats. Fresh egg
albumin-induced pedalo edema and STZ-induced diabetes mellitus were used
as experimental test models of inflammation and diabetes. The plant extract
was administered per os and produced dose-dependent, significant reductions
in the blood glucose levels of both fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats. The
results of this experimental animal study indicated that Tetrapleura tetraptera
fruit aqueous extract possesses anti-inflammatory and hypoglycaemic
properties. The experimental findings lend pharmacological credence to the
suggested folkloric uses of the plant's fruit in the management and/or control
of arthritis and other inflammatory conditions, as well as in type II diabetes
mellitus in some Yoruba-speaking communities of South-Western Nigeria
(Ojewolea & Adewunmib 2004).
Teucrium polium (Labiatae)
The aqueous extract of Teucrium polium has long being used in Iran as a
hypoglycemic aid without any knowledge about its probable side effects and mode of action. In an effort to assess the claimed hypoglycemic property of the herb and to derive some knowledge about the mechanism of action, the crude extract was administered per os to a group of STZ-diabetic rats for six consecutive weeks (Esmaeli & Yazdanparast 2004). The obtained data
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
indicated that Teucrium polium crude extract is able to enhance insulin
secretion and that the plant extract, probably without metabolic
transformation, is able to reduce high blood glucose levels through enhancing
insulin secretion by the pancreas.
Teucrium laurifolia (Labiatae)
Teucrium laurifolia (Purple flower strain) were tested for hypoglycemic
activity in rats (Aritajat et al., 2004). The results showed that high
blood glucose levels of diabetic rats were associated with severe destruction
of β cells (insulin-secreting cells) in the islet of Langerhans. The 15-day-
treatment of Teucrium laurifolia extract decreased levels of blood glucose in
diabetic rats. Whether Teucrium laurifolia leaf contains insulin-like
substance(s) which directly act as hypoglycemic agents, or contains
substances that induce the regenerative process of β cells remained to be
further investigated.
Trigonella foenumgraecum (Leguminoseae)
Trigonella foenumgraecum (fenugreek) seeds, a common condiment used
in Indian homes, have been found to diminish hyperglycemia in normal and
STZ-induced diabetic rats after per os administration. Fasting blood glucose,
urinary sugar excretion, serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels in diabetics
were significantly reduced. Clinical symptoms like polyuria, polyphagia and
polydypsia were improved. These effects of fenugreek seeds seemed to be
due to the gum fibre present in them. Fenugreek was reported to be
absolutely safe for consumption based on a long-term animal study
(Udayasekhara 1996).
Urtica dioica (Urticaceae)
The blood glucose lowering effect of Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) as a
medicinal plant has been noted in old writings such as those of Avicenna. It was demonstrated that the active fraction named F1, caused a marked increase in insulin secretion (Bijan et al., 2003). A simultaneous assay of glucose showed that the increase in insulin level was associated with a decrease in glucose level. Furthermore, the active component of Urtica dioica was found to increase the levels of insulin in blood serum in normal and STZ-diabetic rats that were injected i.p. with the active ingredient of the extract. The results showed that the blood lowering effect of the extract was due to the enhancement of insulin secretion by Langerhance isletes.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
Vaccinium myrtillus L. (Ericaceae), Taraxacum officinale
(Asteraceae), Cichorium intybus L. (Compositae), Juniperus
communis L. (Cuphessaceae), Centaurium umbellatum Gilib.
(Genianaceae), Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae), Achillea
millefolium L. (Asteraceae), Morus nigra L. (Moraceae),
Valeriana officinalis L. (Valeranaceae) and Urtica dioica L
(Urticaceae)
Treatment with the plant extract P-9801091 (is an antihyperglycemic
preparation containing Myrtilli folium (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), Taraxaci
radix (Taraxacum officinale), Cichorii radix (Cichorium intybus L.), Juniperi
fructus (Juniperus communis L.), Centaurii herba (Centaurium umbellatum
Gilib.), Phaseoli pericarpium (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), Millefolii herba
(Achillea millefolium L.), Mori folium (Morus nigra L.), Valerianae radix
(Valeriana of ficinalis L.) and Urticae radix (Urtica dioica L)) resulted to
statistically significant changes in antioxidative defense occurred in an
experimental model of short-term diabetes mellitus. The treatment with the
plants extract that was mixed with laboratory chow led to a significant
increase in the catalytic concentration of GSTs in the liver of diabetic mice
and a decrease in MDA concentration, which could be explained by its
antihyperglycemic effect. Hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus is responsible
for the development of oxidative stress (via glucose auto-oxidation and
protein glycation), which is characterized by increased lipid peroxide
production and/or decreased antioxidative defense. (Petevski et al., 2003)
Viscum album (Viscaceae)
The acute hypoglycemic effect of water and ethanolic extracts of three
Viscum album (subspecies: album, austriacum, abietis) were investigated in
normoglycemic and STZ-diabetic rats (Orhan et al., 2005). The extracts were
administered to the experimental animals per os using a gastric gavage needle
The findings obtained in the experiments demonstrated that European
mistletoe (Viscum album L.) subspecies possessed potent antihyperglycemic
and antioxidant activity depending on the host plant.
Withania somnifera (Solanaceae)
Hypoglycemic, diuretic and hypocholesterolemic effects of roots of
Withania somnifera were assessed on human subjects (Radhika et al., 2000). Six mild type II diabetic subjects and six mild hypercholesterolemic subjects
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
were treated per os with the powder of roots of Withania somnifera. Suitable
parameters were studied in the blood and urine samples of the subjects along
with dietary pattern before and at the end of treatment period. Decrease in
blood glucose, increase in urine sodium, urine volume, significant decrease in
serum cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL and VLDL cholesterol were observed
indicating that the root of Withania somnifera is a potential source of
hypoglycemic, diuretic and hypocholesterolemic agents. Clinical observations
revealed no adverse effects.
Xanthium strumarium (Compositae)
The antihyperglycemic effect of caffeic acid, one of the phenolic
compounds contained in the fruit of Xanthium strumarium, was investigated (Hsu et al., 2000). After an i.v. injection of caffeic acid into diabetic rats of both STZ-induced and insulin-resistant models, a dose-dependent decrease of plasma glucose was observed.
However, a similar effect was not shown in normal rats. An insulin-
independent action of caffeic acid can thus be considered. In addition, this
compound reduced the elevation of plasma glucose levels in insulin-resistant
rats receiving a glucose challenge test. Also, glucose uptake into the isolated
adipocytes was raised by caffeic acid in a concentration-dependent manner.
The increase of glucose utilization by caffeic acid seemed to be responsible
for the lowering of plasma glucose.
Xanthocercis zambesiaca (Leguminosae)
The aqueous and methanol extract of the leaves and root of Xanthocercis
zambesiaca and eight structurally related nitrogen-containing sugars, were evaluated, after i.p. administration, for antihyperglycemic effects in STZ-diabetic mice (Nojima et al., 1998). The insulin-releasing effects of fagomine were also investigated and it increased plasma insulin level in STZ-diabetic mice and this induced potentiation of insulin release may partly contribute to antihyperglycemic action.
Polyxeni Alexiou & Vassilis J. Demopoulos
1-deoxynojirimycin
Zizyphus spina-christi (Rhamnaceae)
Zizyphus is one of the plants commonly used in Egyptian folk medicine
for the treatment of different diseases. The effect of the butanol extract of Zizyphus spina-christi leaves as well as christinin-A, its principle saponin glycoside, was investigated in normal and STZ-diabetic rats (as a mixture of isomers) (Glombitza et al., 1994). In normal rats, treatment in both cases for one and four weeks produced insignificant changes in all studied parameters. However, in diabetic rats, treatment with the remedies significantly reduced serum glucose level, liver phosphorylase and G6Pase activities, and significantly increased serum pyruvate level and liver glycogen content after 4 weeks' treatment. There was also marked improvement in glucose utilization in diabetic rats. Serum insulin and pancreatic cAMP levels showed significant increase in diabetic rats treated for a period of 4 weeks with the butanol extract.
Plants & diabetes/diabetic complications
Abbreviations
AGEs: advanced glycation end products; ALR2: aldose reductase; CAT:
catalase; G6Pase: glucose-6-phosphatase; G6PD: glucose 6-phosphate
dehydrogenase; GK: glucokinase; GLUT4: glucose transport protein,
isozyme 4; GSH: glutathione; GST: glutathione S-transferase; HDL: high
density lipoprotein; HK: hexokinase; HMGR: HMG CoA reductase; i.m.:
intramascular; i.p: intraperitoneal; i.v.: intravenous; IDDM: insulin dependent
diabetes mellitus (type I); Km: Michaelis constant for enzymatic reactions;
LDL: low density lipoprotein; LOX: lipoxygenase; MDA: malondialdehyde;
MDH: malate dehydrogenase; NAC: N-acetylcysteine; NIDDM: non insulin
dependent diabetes mellitus (type II); PEPCK: phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxykinase; per os: orally; PFK: phosphofructokinase; PI3K:
phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase; PTP1B: protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B; s.c.:
subcutaneous; SOD: superoxide dismutase; STZ: streptozotocin; TGF: T-cell
growth factor; VLDL: very low density lipoprotein.
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Source: http://www.kaubic.in/DIACAN/Antidiabetic_Plants.pdf
Mode of Action: Recent Developments, Regulatory Application and Future Work 21-22 February 2013, Vienna Workshop Report No. 26 Co-organised by ECETOC and WHO-IPCS and co-financed by Cefic-LRI EUROPEAN CENTRE FOR ECOTOXICOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY OF CHEMICALS Mode of Action:
Ausgabe 43 Erntedank — 1. Advent 2010 Gemeindebrief der Scheidegg - Weiler wir wollen helfen in aller Not, wir wollen schaffen, die Kraft gibst Du, wir wollen lieben, Herr hilf dazu. Amen. Umsichtig lenkte der Fahrer durch Vor einiger Zeit ging für mich ein die engen Kurven und erklärte mir Kindheitstraum in Erfüllung. Als nebenbei die Technik. Stolz und Erstklässler habe ich mir vom glücklich stieg ich unten aus. Taschengeld jede Woche kleine Wie geht es uns mit unseren Spielzeugautos gekauft, und beson-